Situation in Other Parts of India During the Period of Delhi Sultanate

(A large number of states emerged in North India during the ups and downs of the Delhi Sultanate) 

India in the 14th & 15th Century AD

States in the East (Assam, Bengal & Odisha)

Assam

Assam (ancient pragjyotish) had two important Hindu kingdoms i.e. Kamapura and Ahom. The Ahoms had established their kingdom in the 13th century over the north-eastern part of Assam and ruled for six centuries. The great Ahom ruler Suhungmung (1497-1539) A.D. gave its modern name Assam. At the end of the 13th century Kamarupa became independent. Both kingdoms faced several invasions from Bengal. Hussain Shah of Bengal finally annexed the kingdom of Kamarupa.

Bengal

In the 14th century Bengal became independent from the Turkish rule. Bengali literature flourished during this time. The Bengali version of Ramayana and Mahabharata were also prepared during this time. In Bengal, the Adina mosque and the tomb of Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Shah at Pandua and the Dakhil Darwaza and Tantipura mosque at Gaur were built. The oblong shape of many structures and the peculiar style of roof constructions were some of the distinctive features of the regional architecture of Bengal.

Odisha

In the medieval period Odisha was known as Utkal. It emerged as an independent kingdom under the Ganga and the Gajapati dynasties. They ruled for 500 years. Great temples like those of Bhubaneswar, Konark, and Puri were built during this period. It became a part of the Mughal Empire in the 16th century.

States in the North (Kashmir, Jaunpur & Malwa)

Kashmir

In the 14th century, the Shah Mir dynasty was founded in Kashmir by Shah Mir. Zain-ul- Abidin was the famous ruler of Kashmir. The translation of Mahabharata and Kalhana’s Rajatarangini into Persian was done during his reign. He is remembered in Kashmir as Budshah. Timber, stone and brick were used in the Jama Masjid completed by Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin. The turret is a striking feature of the mosques of Kashmir and recalls to mind the Buddhist pagodas. The tomb of Zain-ul-Abidin’s mother, built entirely of brick and glazed tiles, has been designed in the Persian style.

Jaunpur

The city of Jaunpur was founded by Firoz shah Tughlaq in 1359-1360 A.D. In the 15th century, Malik sarwar founded the Sharqi dynasty of Jaunpur. Muhmud Shah Sharqi, who conquered Delhi for a short time, was the famous ruler of this dynasty. The famous Atala masjid is an example of Sharqi style of Architecture. A huge massive screen covers the dome. The walls and the ceilings are decorated with many ancient Indian designs like the lotus.

Malwa

The city of Ujjain was a famous seat of learning and culture in ancient period. During the 15th century it became independent from Delhi sultanate. Hushang Shah and Mahmud Khalji consolidated Malwa as an independent kingdom. Baz Bahadur was the last independent ruler of Malwa. Malwa was finally conquered by Akbar. Instead of Dhar, Mandu became the capital of the rulers of Malwa. They adorned Mandu with magnificent buildings of which the famous ones are Jami Masjid, Hindola Mahal, and the Jahaz Mahal and a number of tombs. The buildings of Malwa have wide and imposing arches and the windows are gracefully decorated. The tomb of Hoshang Shah is made entirely of Marble, the first of its kind in India. It is delicately decorated with yellow and black marble inlay work.

States in the West (Gujarat, Mewar & Marwar)

Gujarat

The independent kingdom of Gujarat was founded by Zafar Khan. Ahmad Shah established the city of Ahmedabad and made it the capital of Gujarat. Ahmad Shah built the Tin Darwaza and the Jami Masjid. The finest building in Ahmedabad is the Sadi Saiyyid Mosque popularly known as the Jaliwali Masjid. Mahmud Begarha ruled for 50 years. During his reign the Portuguese established their settlement in Gujarat. Gujarat became famous for its wood carvings, for example Jami Masjid at Champaner and Bibi Achyut Kuki Mosque.

Mewar

The origin of Mewar dates back to the 8th century A.D. Then it was ruled by Guhilot dynasty. In the 15th century it became one of the important states of Rajasthan under the Sisodias. It was Rana Kumbha who freed Mewar from the Sultanate and conquered several other states. He was a learned man, who wrote commentaries on Jayadev’s Gita Govinda. He built the Kirtistambha at chittor and a fort in Kumbalgarh. Sangram singh, popularly known as Rana Sanga fought against Babur in the battle of Khanua in 1527. (Rana means a ‘mighty warrior’. This title was given to Bappa Rana. After him all his successors used this title.)

Marwar

Marwar was ruled by the Rathods. They established their rule in the 13th century. Jodha was a famous king of this dynasty founded the city of Jodhpur and made it the capital of Marwar. He also built the famous fort of Mehrangarh at Jodhpur. His son Bika founded the State of Bikaner in the mid-fifteenth century.

Deccan (Bahamani Kingdom & Vijayanagar Empire)

Bahamani Kingdom

Bahmani kingdom

The Bahmani kingdom was founded by Hassan Gangu in 1347 A.D. with the title of Alauddin hassan Bahman Shah. His capital was at Gulbarga. Sultan Ahmad Shah I transferred the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar in 1424 A.D. Most important period was under Mahmud Gawan (1463-1481 A.D.), the great minister of Bahamani kingdom. There was a struggle between the Bahmani Kingdom and the empire of Vijayanagar over the region between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra known as the Raichur doab. In the middle of the 15th century Bahamani was divided into five kingdoms – Bidar, Berar, Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golcunda. These kingdoms maintained their independence until they were finally annexed by the Mughal rulers.

A Courtyard in the Jama Masjid

The Bahmani Sultans in the Deccan erected a number of buildings in a distinctive style at Bidar and Gulbarga. They borrowed from the styles of Persia, Syria, Turkey and those of the temples of southern India. The courtyard of the Jama Masjid at Gulbarga is covered with a large number of domes. It is the only mosque in India which has a covered courtyard. Instead of minarets, there are domes at the four corners and a fifth and bigger one above the prayer chamber. The absence of decorative work does not mar its grandeur.There are two groups of tombs. The first group has the tombs of the first two Sultans and shows the impress of the Tughlaq Architecture. The second group called the halft gumbad or ‘seven tombs’ shows the influence of Persian and ancient Indian styles.

Madrasa of Mahmud Gavan

Bidar also has a number of tombs. The tomb of Sultan Ahmad Shah Ali is richly decorated with beautiful paintings. The finest monument at Bidar is the madrasa of Mahmud Gavan. It is a three-storied building and has two towering minars at the front corners. After the Bahamani kingdom was spilt up, many other buildings such as the Mehtar Mahal and the Ibrahim Rauza were erected in the new principalities. The Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur and the fort of Golconda and many tombs in Golconda also belong to this period. 

Vijayanagara Empire

Vijayanagara Empire

The Vijayanagara Empire was founded by two brothers in 1336 A.D. They were Harihara and Bukka. Four dynasties ruled in this empire for 400 years. They were Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva, and Aravidu. The Empire of Vijayanagara covered almost the entire region south of river Krishna. Their capital was Vijaya-nagara (modern hampi in Karnataka). Italian Nicolo Conti from Italy, Abdur Razzaq, the Persian Ambassador and Domingo paes from Portugal visited the Vijayanagara kingdom.

Vijayanagara Empire was divided into provinces called Rajyas and mandalams. The provinces in turn divided into districts called Kottams or Venthe and further sub-divided into nadus. Village or grama was the smallest unit of administration. The village was administered by a body of twelve functionaries, collectively called Ayagars. They were appointed by the king. Gold coins issued by the vijayanagara kings were called varaha. The coins indicate that the religion of most of the kings was Vaishnavism.

The society of Vijayanagara was organised on the system of Varna. The king considered it their duty to protect and promote the social order based on Varnashrama system. The merchant classes were divided into Velangais and Idangais. Women occupied honourable positions and were educated. Widows could remarrry.

The Vijayanagara rulers patronised Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu and Kannada languages. Sayana, the great Sanskrit scholar of this period, wrote commentaries on the Vedas. Devaraya I was a great patron of learning. In his court, the famous Telugu poet Srinatha lived who wrote Haravilasam. Devaraya II wrote two works i.e. Mahanataka and Sudhanidhi and a commentary on the Brahma Sutra of Badrayana. Krishnadevaraya was known as Abhinava Bhoja. Eight great telugu poets adorned his court. They were known as Ashta Diggajas. Krishnadevaraya himself wrote Amuktamalyada in Telugu, a treatise on polity and administration. Devaraya I constructed a barrage on the Tungabhadra River and an aqueduct. It was 24 km long and was used for supply of water to the capital.

Vaithalaswami temple

A prominent feature of Vijayanagara architecture was the addition of a large pillared hall, known as Kalyana-mandapa, to the old type of temples. Other features included the towering gateways called gopurams and ornate pillars. The finest temples of Vijayanagara are in Hampi, which has been designated as a world heritage city. The most famous among these temples are the Vaithalaswami temple, Hazar Rama temple and Virupaksha Temples. The Vithala temple has three gopurams and a number of highly decorated pillars. The pillars of the Hazar rama temple were richly carved as were the inner walls and depicted scenes from the Ramayana. The life size portrait statues of the Narasimha and of Krishnadevaraya and his two queens are fine examples of Vijayanagara art.

Inference from the Blogger

One thing can be noticed during this period that these regional kingdoms, i.e. in North, in Deccan and in south followed social order based on Varnashrama system. Even in Deccan, Bahamani kingdom developed its architectural pattern by borrowing from the styles of Persia, Syria, Turkey and those of the temples of southern India. Thus these regional kingdoms played a significant role in the development of a common culture.

Delhi Sultanate in a Nutshell

(The period between 1206 and 1526 in the Indian history is known as Delhi Sultanate)

In 1194 A.D. Muhammad Ghori attacked Kanauj and defeated and killed the Gahadhavala king Jaichandra in the battle of Chandawar near Kanauj. With this Ghori got the control of the territory extending right from Afghanistan to the Ganga Yamuna doab up to Varanasi. Muhammad Ghori was murdered in 1206 A.D. After this his Indian positions came under the control of one of his generals, Qutbuddin Aibak.

The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (1206-1290 A.D.)

After Ghori’s death, Qutbuddin Aibak (slave-general of Muhammad Ghori) set up an independent kingdom with its headquarters at Lahore and thus laid the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate. Except Qutbuddin, other sultans of this dynasty belonged to the ilabari tribe of turks. During his time Bhaktiyar Khalji raided and plundered the areas of eastern U.P., Bihar, and Bengal. In the process he attacked and destroyed the famous universities of Nalanda and Vikramashila. Qutbuddin was succeeded by Iltutmish.

Iltutmish made delhi his capital. He organised the rulling elite or nobility of the period, which is better known as Turkan-i-chahalgani or chalisa. He divided his empire into numerous big and small pieces of land, called Iqtas. These Iqtas were assigned to the nobles and officers in lieu of salary. He introduced the silver coins called tanka and copper coins called jital, which were used during the sultanate period. Iltutmish chose his daughter Razia as his successor. 

Razia Sultan was the first and last woman Muslim ruler of the medieval period. She ruled for a short period and after her a number of less important sultans came to the throne.

Balban, another ruler of the slave dynasty, defended his kingdom from the Mangol invasions and from internal rebellions. He broke the power of Turkish nobility (Chalisa), which had become more powerful than the Sultans. He derived his concept of kingship from Persia. He called himself a shadow of God on earth and next only to the prophet. He encouraged people to do Sijdah in his presence, (they had to kneel and touch the ground with their forehead in salutation to him) and do Paibos (kissing the feet of the king). This idea was much to the indignation of the people, who believed that in Islam all men are equal and no one is supposed to do Sijdah before anyone except God.

The Khiljis (1290-1320 A.D.)

Jalaluddin Khilji the first sultan of khilji dynasty came to the throne in 1290 A.D. at the age of 70. He was murdered by his ambitious nephew Alauddin Khalji in 1296 A.D. Alauddin Khalji wanted to become a world conqueror and called himself the second Alexander (sikander-i-sani). Therefore, he follwed the policy of defence from the Mongol invasion. He also followed the policy of Balban in tackling the Mongol menace in the frontier regions. 

He adopted the policy of expansion. He conquered the kingdoms of Gujarat, Malwa, and Rajasthan. The source, Malik Muhammad Jayasi’s ‘Padamavat’ said that one of the objectives of Alauddin Khalji in attacking Chittor was to acquire Padmini, the beautiful queen of Rana Ratan Singh. He sent his army under the command of Malik Kafur to conquer south India. Malik Kafur defeated the Yadavas of Devagiri, kakatiyas of Warrangal and Hoyashalas of Dvarasamudra. His motives behind his south expeditions were to acquire immense wealth and to force the southern kings to accept his authority. Therefore, he released the kings on payment of tribute to him. 

Alauddin followed the policy of consolidation. He took various measures for the prevention of rebellions and therefore restricted interrelations among the nobles and officers. He made several sweeping reforms in the field of revenue system. They were – 

• Regulation of revenue on the basis measurement of land. 
• Fixing of state’s demand at half of the produce. 
• Bringing more land under state control by abolishing small iqtas and forcing village chiefs and other officers to pay taxes to increase the revenue of the state.

He also began the market control system. For this purpose he fixed the prices of various commodities, established separate market for specific commodities under the charge of a controller of market. He prescribed strict punishment for those violated the rules and indulge in cheating. Alauddin Khalji died in 1316 A.D. After his death, the dynasty could not survive beyond 1320 A.D. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq organized a revolt and captured the throne by killing the last ruler of the khalji dynasty.

The Tughlaqs (1320-1414 A.D.)

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq was an experinced warrior, statesman and an able administrator. He liberalised various harsh measures imposed by Alaudin Khalji and restored peace and order in the kingdom. He built the fortified city of Tughlaqabad in Delhi. He was succeeded by his son Muhammad bin Tughlaq in 1325 A.D.

Ibn Battutah, a traveller from Morocco, visited India during Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign. He was appointed as the chief Qazi of Delhi and was later sent by Sultan as an ambassador to China. Muhammad Tughlaq was a great scholar and was well versed in various branches of learning. He offended the Orthodox Ulema by curbing their political influence and tried to resolve the problems of the States.

He failed on account of his three famous projects. The transfer of capital from Delhi to Devagiri (district Aurangabad, Maharashtra). He renamed Devagiri as Daulatabad. He thought that from Daulatabad it would be easier to control the Deccan. But the project failed because of two regions. First, he ordered the entire population along with the cattle to shift from Delhi to Daulatabad. A large number of people and cattle died on the way. Secondly, it became impossible to control north India from Daulatabad and keep the kingdom safe from the attacks from northwest frontiers. Within five years the capital was shifted back to Delhi, again causing great hardship to the people.

Introduction of token currency project failed on account of the circulation of counterfeit coins on a very large scale, which caused chaos in trade and commerce. Muhammad had to finally withdraw the token currency and offer to exchange all the token coins for silver coins. To compensate his monetary loss in the above projects and in order to get more money he increased the land revenue in the doab. The measure proved to be ill-timed, as the Doab region was then passing through a great famine, which was followed by plague. The discontent among people forced him to withdraw his order. After this he established a new department of agriculture to improve production. During the last decade of his reign, he faced various rebellions in which several regions of south and north of India became independent. After him, Firoz Shah Tughlaq came to the throne. 

Firoz Shah Tughlaq adopted appeasement policies to gain support of the nobles, the army and the Ulema. He also granted lands to the Ulema and made iqtas hereditary. To please orthodox Muslims he imposed Jizyah on Brahmans. He founded new cities like Hissar, Ferozpur, Jaunpur, and Firuzabad. To beautify his new capital at Firuzabad in Delhi, two Ashokan pillars, one from Topra (Ambala) and the other from Meerut were brought. He also constructed dams, canals, sarais, mosques and madarasas and laid about 1200 state-managed fruit gardens.

The sultanate was reduced to a local principality within two decades after the death of Firoz. During the reign of Nasiruddin Mahmud, the last ruler of the dynasty, Timur, the Mongol king from central Asia, invaded India. Timur reached Delhi in 1398 A.D. and ordered a general massacre. He stayed in Delhi for several days and people were robbed, disgraced and butchered. He left Delhi as a deserted city in early 1399 A.D. Timur’s invasion dealt a fatal blow to the Tughlaq dynasty and the Sultanate of Delhi. By 1412 A.D. the sultanate disintegrated and numerous new kingdoms emerged in its place.

Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451 A.D.)

Khizr Khan, a local governor, who called himself as viceroy of Timur, founded the new dynasty known as Sayyids. This dynasty ruled over Delhi and its surrounding region for a short time.

Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526 A.D.)

Bahlol Lodi, who was an Afghan, founded the Lodi dynasty. The Lodi kings tried to regain the lost territories of Bihar and Bengal. Sikandar Lodi founded the new city of Agra in A.D. 1506 and made it his capital. The last Lodi Sultan was Ibrahim Lodi. He was defeated and killed by Babar in the first battle of Panipat in 1526 A.D. With the fall of the Lodis the Delhi Sultanate was also ended.

Administration

After the Sultan, the nobles and ulemas were sometimes served as checks on Sultan’s powers and influenced state policies. The nobility was mostly comprised of people of foreign origin, belonging mainly to two distinct groups, the Turkish and the non-Turkish. These people immigrated into India from central and west Asia in search of fortune. They paid high salaries in the form of assignment of land, called iqtas. Iqtas were transferable and they were assigned to soldiers, officers, and nobles. The holders of iqtas were called iqtadars. Whereas, the ulemas were theologians well versed in shariat laws. They were consulted in religious matters and held monopoly of judicial offices in the state. In this way they formed a section of the governing class.

There were four important departments of administration. 

• The diwan-i-wizarat – It was headed by wazir, who looked after finance and public administration. 
• The diwan-i-arz – It was responsible for the administration of military affairs. 
• The diwan-i-insha – It looked after state correspondence. 
• The diwan-i-risalat – It was the department of religious affairs and education.

The heads of the provinces were called wali and muqti. They were directly responsible to the central government. The province was further sub-divided into shiqs and parganas. A number of villages collectively formed a pargana, which was headed by an amil.

Society, Economy and Religion

Sant Kabir

In society, the period is important for the introduction of new elements-the Turks, the Persians, the Mangols and the Afghans besides the Arabs who had settled sown in some coastal regions-into India. Muslims were mainly belonged to Sunni and Shia sects. Majority of them belonged to foreign countries. There were a large number of slaves in the services of Delhi Sultanate. Ibn battutah praises hospitality of the Hindus and says that the caste rules were strictly followed in marriages. The freedom of women was much restricted. Purdah became common in the society.

Guru Nanak

Agriculture was the main occupation of the people. The Sultans of Delhi began the state sponsored workshops called Karakhanas to fulfill their needs. Internal and external trade was flourishing despite some setbacks from invasions. In economic life trade and craft received a stimulus and many towns arose as centres of administration, trade and crafts. 

Bhaktism

The important development during this period was the rise of Sufism and Bhakti movements. Significantly the bhakti movement best represented by Kabir and Nanak disapproved religious narrow-mindedness, superstitions and observance of formal rituals. The Bhakti saints condemned caste inequalities and laid stress on human brother-hood. The Sufis or the Muslim mystics preached the message of love and human brotherhood. These two movements played a leading role in combating religious exclusiveness and narrow mindedness and in bringing the people of all communities together. Sikhism began to emerge as a new religion in this period based on the teachings of Guru Nanak and other saints.

Language and Literature

A Court Scene

Two new languages i.e. Arabic and Persian became a part of India’s linguistic heritage. Of these, Arabic was mainly the language of Islam learning. For literature and in its widespread use, Persian was more important. Persian was the court language of the Sultanate. Because of its literature many Persian words became part of the Vocabulary of Indian languages. A very notable contribution of the Turks was in the field of historical literature in Persian. Under the influence of Persian, new forms of literature such as the Ghazal were introduced. The Muslim rulers in their administration used as a mixture of Arabic, Persian, and Turkish languages, although Sanskrit, Prakrit and Tamil continued to be mediums of literature.

The period of Sultanate of Delhi saw fusion of different languages resulted in development of Hindi, Braj, Avadhi, Bengali, Gujarati, Odia and Sindhi in the north and Marathi, Kannada, Telugu, and Malayalam in the south. The Bhakti saints enriched the modern Indian languages and this gave the literature of these languages many common features. Braj Bhasa and Khari Boli, forms of Hindi began to be used in literary compositions. Many devotional songs were composed in these languages. Heroic literature was written in Rajasthani, which was akin to Hindi and Gujarati.

The famous ballad Allah Udal and the Vishaldeo Raso belong to this period. Mulla Daud wrote perhaps the oldest poem in Awadhi language called Chandayana. With the introduction of paper the oldest available texts were reproduced during this period, throughout the country. A new language called Urdu started developing during this period. Its grammar was mostly like that of Hindi, but its vocabulary consists of both Persian and Hindi languages. Amir Khusrau, a disciple of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya was the first Muslim writer made use of Urdu or Hinduivi language as a vehicle for the expression of his poetic ideas. 

In ancient India, there was no tradition of historical writing. The Turks introduced the Arab and Persian traditions of historical writing in India. Historian Ziauddin Barani wrote the Tarikh-i-Firozsahi which gives a detailed account of the reigns of the Khaljis and the Tughlaqs. He also wrote a work on political theory called the Fatawa-i-jahandari. Perhaps the most outstanding literary figure of this period was Amir Khusrau. He was a poet, historian, mystic and composer of music. He was also a disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya. He wrote the Ashiqa, the Nuh Siphir, the Qiranal-sadayan, the Khazain-ul-fultuh and several works of poetry. He took great pride in his being an Indian and praised India as the Earthly Paradise. He praised India’s flora and Fauna, its beauty, its buildings, its knowledge and learning. He believed that in many respects the essence of Hinduism resembled Islam. He considered Hindawi, the Hindi spoken around the region of Delhi, his mother tongue and composed many verses in it. He composed a number of bilingual quatrains and verses in Hindi and Persian. The healthy tradition started by him continued for centuries after him.

Krishnadeva Raya

In the regional kingdoms the Sultans of Bengal, Gujarat and other states patronized local language and literature. There were two main forms of Hindi in this period- Bhojpuri and Awadhi. Kabir wrote in Bhojpuri and his Dohas or couplets have become a part of the folklore. Malik Muhammad jayasi wrote the Padmavat in Awadhi. The famous Ramacharitamanas by Tulsidas was also written in Awadhi in this period. Another poet Qutban, a disciple of the Sufi saint Shaikh Burhan wrote the Mrigavati in Awadhi. In Bengali the Ramayana by Krittivasa and the hundreds of lyrics by the famous poet Chandi Das were written under the patronage of the rulers. With Chaitanya, the tradition of writing devotional songs began. Narasi mehta wrote devotional songs in Gujarati and Namamdev and Ekanath in Marathi.

There were important developments in Kashmir also under Zainul Abidin, under whose patronage many Sanskrit works like the Mahabharata and the Rajatarangini were translated into Persian. Under the Vijayanagar kingdom, Sanskrit literature continued to grow. However, this was an important period of growth of Telugu literature. Krishnadeva Raya, the greatest of Vijayanagar rulers was also a Telugu and Sanskrit writer. He wrote the Vishnuchittiya. Allasani Peddana, a famous court poet of Krishnadeva wrote the Manucharita. Dhurjati wrote the Kalahasti Mahatamya.

Art and Architecture (Indo-Islamic)

Qutub Minar & Alai Darwaza

The earliest mosque is the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in Delhi, which was built by Qutubuddin Aibak. It measured about 70 into 30 metres. The central arch of this mosque is decorated with beautiful sculptured calligraphy and is about 17 metres high and about 7 metres wide. He also started the Qutab Minar which was completed by his successor Iltutmish. This is a tower rising to a height of about 70 metres. It was dedicated to the sufi saint Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.

Alauddin Khalji built a new capital called Siri, a few kilometres from the Qutub complex. He enlarged the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque still further and added an entrance door to the Qutub complex called the Alai darwaza. He also started building a minar which was designed to be double the height of Qutub Minar, but the project remained unfulfilled.

Tomb of Sikander Lodi

The Tughlaqs concentrated on the building of new cities in Delhi like Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah and Ferozabad. A number of buildings were erected which differed in their style from the earlier buildings. Massive and strong structures like the tomb of Ghiyasuddin and the walls of Tughlaqabad marked a new trend in architecture. The tomb is octagonal in shape. The tombs of Lodi kings and nobles were built inside gardens and decorated with colorful tiles. The buildings of the Tughlaq period were significant from the point of view of the development of architecture. They were not beautiful but massive and very impressive.

Some Inferences by the Blogger

• Politically Sultanate of Delhi led to the unification of Northern India and parts of the Deccan for almost a century. 
• Almost from the time of the establishment of the Sultanate, rulers of Delhi Sultanate succeeded in separating it from the country from which they had originally come from.
• The provincial government was a replica of the central government. 
• New elements of technology were introduced during this period.
• The Bhakti movement which has started many centuries earlier spread throughout the country.
• There was a great advance in the growth of modern Indian languages and literature. 
• A systematic account of Indian History began in this period with the sultanate of Delhi.
• Decorative element was introduced to beautify the buildings in this period.

History of South India in the Early Medieval Period

(Historians called Chola kings of this period as Imperial Cholas to distinguish them from earlier ones)

In the 4th century A.D. there emerged the Chalukyas (in present Karnataka) and the Pallavas (in present A.P. and Tamil Nadu) in South India. Both these dynasties became very powerful and ruled over the region for about 400 years. However with the reversal of fortune, the Cholas started emerging again as a great power in south India around eighth century A.D. by defeating the Pallava kings and other local rulers. The Cholas bought about the political unification of large parts of the country.

Imperial Cholas

Imperial Cholas

From the mid-ninth century A.D., the Cholas ruled over Tamil Nadu, parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. To distinguish these kings from earlier ones, who ruled up to 4th century A.D., historians call them as the Imperial Cholas. They built a powerful Navy and conquered Sri Lanka, parts of South East Asia and the islands of Maldives and the Lakshadweep. Thus the Imperial Cholas helped in spreading the Indian culture abroad. The founder of the Imperial Cholas was Vijayalaya (846-871 A.D.), who conquered Tanjore from Pallavas. Parantaka I (907-953 A.D.) another famous king defeated the Pandya kings of Madurai and extended the territory further south. He assumed the title of Maduraikondavana i.e. the conqueror of Madurai. 

Rajarajesvara temple

Rajaraja I (985-1016 A.D.) another famous king, first defeated the Chera kings and captured the region of Kerala and then defeated and captured the Pandya kings and took possession of Madurai. The northern part of Sri Lanka became a Chola province under the name Mummadi Cholamandalam under his expedition. After this he overran the Chalukyas of Vengi. He also launched campaigns against Kalinga and the old islands of Lakshadweep and Maldivies. Rajaraj I conquered all these territories and built a maritime empire to control its trade and commerce. He assumed various titles and built the famous temple of Tanjore which is known as Rajarajesvara temple.

Buddha at Nagapatnam

Rajendra I, son and successor of Rajaraja I annexed the whole of Sri Lanka and reasserted his authority over Kerala and the Pandyas. He turned his attention towards the north and his armies marched right up to river Ganga in the Pala kingdom. After this he adopted the title of Gangaikonda and established a new capital known as Gangaikonda-Cholapuram near the mouth of River Kaveri. He possessed a powerful fleet, which gained success across the Bay of Bengal. He sent a naval expedition in 1025 A.D. for the conquest of the Sri Vijaya Empire. (Sri Vijaya Empire included Sumatra, Java and Malay peninsula). He conquered many ports of Sri Vijaya. The rulers of the Sailendra dynasty of the Sri Vijaya Empire were on friendly terms with the Chola kings. The Sailendra king built a Buddhist monastery at Nagapatnam and Rajendra I on his part had endowed the income of Village for its up keep.

In the 13th century, the Cholas were succeeded by the Pandyas of Madurai and the Hoysalas of the Dvara-samudra (Mysore). The Chalukyas of Kalyani in the Deccan were succeeded by the Kakatiyas, who ruled from Warangal (A.P.) and the Yadavas, who ruled from Devgiri (modern Daulatabad in Maharashtra). These dynasties flourish till 14th century A.D. In the beginning of the 14th century A.D. Turkish Sultans of Delhi finally cast their eyes on Deccan and destroyed these kingdoms and captured the areas.

Chola Administration

The king went on regular tours to ensure efficient administration. The Chola Empire was divided into Mandalams (provinces). These Mandalams were further divided into Valanadus (districts). The tax on the land was collected by the village assemblies. The village assemblies were responsible for maintaining tanks used for agricultural prosperity. There were three types of village assemblies. They were the Ur, Sabha or Mahasabha and Nagaram. The Ur was the assembly of common villagers. The Sabha was the assembly of learned Brahmins and the Nagaram was the assembly of merchants, traders and artisans. The Uttarmerur temple inscription gives a detailed description of the functioning of these assemblies. There were provisions of land survey, Classification of various types of lands and assessment of land revenue. Chola rulers also built a network of roads for the purpose of trade and communication.

Economy and society

Shiva-Nataraj

There were two famous guilds of merchants which flourished for more than 300 yrs. They were Manigramam and Nandadesa. South Indian merchants called Chettis traded with countries of Arabia, Persia, China and the countries of South East Asia. 

Women were held in great honour and enjoyed freedom in the society that is ruled by Imperial Cholas. They were imparted education in various branches of learning and fine arts. Each temple had an attached Math, which provided free education, food, clothing and boarding to the students.

Religion

The rulers patronized Buddhism and Jainism as well as Islam and Christianity. There are various Muslim and Christian communities settled in south India. Ramanuja, a religious preacher, who was born at Tirupati around 1017 A.D. tried to assimilate Bhakti to the traditions of Vedas. He made the study of Vedas more popular. Madhava, another religious preacher who preached Bhakti towards Lord Krishna. In south India Nagapattnam and Kanchi were the famous centers of Buddhist learning.

Adi Shankara

But, this was the period of Adi Shankara, who was born in Kerala around 788 A.D. He became well versed in Vedas and other religious scriptures at very early age. He kept moving all over the country preaching his philosophy and debating with the learned scholars. The philosophy of him is known as Advaita meaning non-dualism. He organized ten branches of Advaita philosophy and established four Mathas, namely, the Jyotirmatha at Badrinath in the north, Saradapitha at Dwarka in the west, Govardhanamatha at Puri in the east and Shringerimatha at Kerala in the south. Each math is said to have a Gotra, presiding deities both male and female and Vedic Mahavakya. The location of these maths show that Adi Shankara was looking at India as one religious and cultural unit.

Art and Architecture

Chariot wheel of Chola Art

The Chola temples show the culmination of a particular style of temple architecture known as Dravidian style. They are marked by the square Vimana in pyramidal shape, Mandapa, Gopuram and halls with profusely decorated columns. The most famous temple of this period was the Brihadeswara temple at Tanjore, also known as Rajarajeswara temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva. 

Starting during the late Pallava period, the Bronze sculpture reached heights of glory during the Chola rule. The image of the Nataraja (the lord of dance) from Tanjore is a masterpiece of the Chola bronze sculpture.

Literature

In the southern parts this period saw the flourishing of Sanskrit literature. One of the works is philosophical commentaries of Shankara. Another important Sanskrit work of this period is Bilhana’s Vikramankadevacharita, a biography of the Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI. However, this period is more important for the growth of literature in Dravidian languages. Sanskrit and Tamil were the mediums of expression. 

Canada and Telugu also developed during this period and made popular by Bhakti saints. Nripatunga wrote a great work of poetry in Kannada called the Kavirajamarga. For a few centuries, the Kannada literature was deeply influenced by Jainism. Pampa wrote the Adipurana and the Vikramarjuna-Vijaya, the former dealing with the life of the first Jain Tirthankara and the later based on the Mahabharata. Poona wrote the Shantipurana, a legendary history of the 16th Tirthankara. Another great Kannada writer was Ranna, a contemporary of Pampa and Poona. Two of his famous works are the Ajitapurana and the Gadayuddha. So Pampa, Poona and Ranna are known as the three jewels of the early Kannada literature.

Kamban wrote the Ramayanam in Tamil. In Tamil, this was the period of composition of the great hymns of the Alvars and the Nayannars. The hymns of the Alvars are collected into the Nalayira-Divya Prabandham. Some of the Nayannar works are the Thiruvasagam, the Thirumanairam and the Thiruttondattogai. The Mahabharata and the Ramayana were translated into south Indian languages. Silappadikaram and Manimekalai were the epics occupy a high place in Tamil literature and are revered like Ramayana and the Mahabharata. 

Telugu also produced great religious and secular literature in this period. This included the translations of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, works of grammar, science and other secular literature. Nannaya was among the first Telugu poets, who translated the Mahabharata into Telugu and also wrote on Telugu grammar. Literature in Malayalam also started growing.  

History of North India in the early medieval period

(The defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan at the hands of Muhammad Ghori resulted in the foundation of Muslim rule in India)

Three Kingdoms

The period between the death of Harsha (in the mid-seventh century A.D.) and the establishment of Delhi Sultunate (in the 12th century A.D.) covers a span of 500 years. In political life this period was dominated by the presence of a larger number of states. That’s why the general political picture was that of fragmentation. These centuries also witnessed rise of some important kingdoms:

• in the east there were Palas 
• in the Deccan there were Rashtrakuts 
• in the north there were Gurjara Pratiharas.

These kingdoms acted as a bridge between different regions because the cultural traditions of these kingdoms remained stable as they often fought among themselves. This was perhaps because the changes in these areas took place more gradually than the changes in political spheres. The close interaction among various regions resulted in the formation of definite forms of some common cultural traditions which can be seen in the literature, education, art, and architecture of the period.

Gurjara Pratiharas

The Gurjara Pratiharas were the early Rajputs who began their rule from Gujarat and south western Rajasthan. Later they ruled from Kanauj. Nagahata I was the 1st great ruler of the dynasty. He defeated the Muslim forces of Arab. Then, Bhoja I (A.D. 836-885) succeeded in restoring the territories of the kingdom which was lost for a short time to the Palas of Bengal. He was a devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title of Adivaraha, which has been incorporated as a legend on some of his coins. During the reign of Mahendrapala I, son and successor of Bhoja I, the Pratihara Empire stretched almost from the Himalayas in the north to the Vindhyas in the south and from Bengal in the east to Gujarat in the west. The Pratiharas ruled over north India for more than 300 years. The Arab travellers, such as Sulaiman and Masudi, who visited India in the 9th and 10th centuries A.D., wrote about the power and prestige of the Pratiharas and the vastness of their empire. The great Sanskrit poet Rajasekhar adorned the court of Mahendrapala I. His famous work is Kavyamimansa.

Palas

The history of Bengal from the death of Harsha up to the ascendancy of the Palas around the end of 8th century A.D. remains obscure. At this time West Bengal known as Gauda and East Bengal as Vanga. Bengal was witnessing an internal disorder termed as Matsyanyaya in which the rule of the strong devouring the weak prevailed. This led to an unrest after which Gopala was elected by the people to put an end to Matsyanyaya. Gopala restored peace in the kingdom and laid the foundation of Pala dynasty. Dharamapala and Devapala were the most famous rulers of this dynasty. The Palas ruled over Bihar, Bengal, and parts of Odisha and Assam with many ups and downs in their fortune for over four centuries.

The Arab traveller Sulaiman calls the Pala Kingdom Ruhma (or Dharma, short for Dharmapala). He wrote, in Bhoja’s kingdom exchanges are carried on with silver and gold. He also wrote there is no country in India safe from robbers. Dharmapala founded the famous Buddhist monastery at Vikramshila, which became 2nd only to Nalanda in fame as a Centre for higher learning. During Pala’s reign the fame of Nalanda University spread all over the world. During Devapala’s reign the king of Suvarnadvipa (South East Asia) Balaputradeva built a monastery in Nalanda and requested Devapala to endow the income of 5 villages for the maintenance of the monastery.

Rashtrakutas

Dantivarman, also known as Dantidurga, was the founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty in the Deccan. His capital was at Manyakhet or Malkhed, near modern Sholapur in Maharashtra. Dantivarman was succeeded by his uncle Krishna-I who extended his kingdom up to Karnataka. Then, Dhruva and Govinda-III extended the empire further and waged war for supremacy over the Palas and Pratiharas in east and north India. Dhruva added the emblem of Ganga and Yamuna to his imperial insignia. Amoghavarsha-I (A.D. 814-878) ruled for 64 years. He wrote Kavirajamarga, which is one of the earliest Kannada works on poetics. Krishna-III launched a campign against the Chola ruler of Tanjore and his armies reached up to Rameshwaram, where he built a pillar of victory and a temple. Thus, Rashtrakutas ruled for more than 300 years. They equally patronised Sanskrit, Prakrit and Kannada languages. They not only patronised Saivism and Vaishnavism, but also Jainism, Buddhism, and Islam. The Muslim merchants were permitted to settle in their kingdom, build mosques and preach their religion. The rock cut temples excavated at Ellora belonging to Brahmanical, Buddhist, and Jain sects are the symbols of their religious tolerance and are one of the splendours of Indian arts. The Kailash temple at Ellora built by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna-I, is an unrivalled and magnificent piece of art.

Tripartite Struggle

The struggle among the above 3 dynasties for supremacy over each other is known as tripartite struggle. It is said that the main cause for this struggle was the desire to possess the city of Kanauj, which was then a symbol of Sovereignty. In this struggle their military equipment, administrative machinery and the strategic concepts were more or less the same. Due to this balance of power the victory of one king over the other did not last very long. The defeated powers often regained their position.

Rajputs

Rajput Powers emerged in 11th century

Around the end of the 10th century A.D. the powers of the Pratiharas, Palas and Rashtrakuts declined almost simultaneously. Over these territories other dynasties came into existence. Most of them were Rajputs. According to tradition there are four Rajput clans namely Paramara, Pratihara, Chauhan and Chalukya who were born from fire altars. Therefore, they are also known as Agnikulas. Famous Rajput dynasties includes, The Gahadhavalas of Kanauj, Paramaras of Malwa, Chandellas of Khajuraho, Chauhans of Ajmer, Kalachuris of Tripuri, Chalukyas of Gujarat and Tomars of Delhi. 

Tomar king Anangapala built the city of Delhi (Dhilika) in 736 A.D. During this period Bengal was ruled by Senas. The Ahoms ruled over Assam. Odisha was ruled by the Kesaries from Bhubaneswar and then by the Gangas from Kalinga-nagara. Kashmir was ruled by three dynasties i.e. the Karkota, Utpala and Loharas. Lalitaditya was one of the most famous rulers of Kashmir during this period. The conflicts among different kingdoms for supremacy made them weak. Because of this they could neither defend themselves individually nor unite against the Muslim invasions.

Turkish Invasions

Mahmud Attacks

It was in this period that India’s contact with the new religion of Islam began. The contacts began late in the 7th century through the Arab traders. Later, in early 8th century, the Arabs conquered Sind. In the 10th century, the Turks emerged as a powerful force in central and west Asia and carved out kingdoms for themselves. The Turks first invaded India during the late 10th and early 11th century and Punjab came under Turkish rule. Another series of Turkish invasions in the late 12th and early 13th century led to the establishment of the Sultanate of Delhi. The first of these invaders was Mahmud of Ghazni (Ghazni was a small kingdom situated in Afghanistan). He ascended the throne in 998 A.D. Shortly after his accession he led as many as 17 expeditions into India between 1000 and 1027 A.D. He invaded India to plunder the big towns and rich temples for their wealth. The 15th invasion of Mahmud against the temple of Somnath, situated on the seacoast in Gujarat, was the most disastrous one. During the course of his expedition, Mahmud annexed Punjab and Multan to his empire. In one of his campaigns Mahmud was accompanied by Alberuni. Alberuni was a great Persian scholar. He lived for many years in India, learnt Sanskrit and wrote a book on India known as Tahkik-i-hind. After the death of Mahmud in 1030 A.D., India enjoyed a respite for about 150 years from foreign invasions. 

In 1175 A.D. Shahbuddin Muhammad Ghori attacked northern India. This ultimately led to the foundation of the Sultanate of Delhi. Muhammad Ghori belonged to the Ruling house of Ghor in Afghanistan. His kingdom comprised the parts of modern Afghanistan between Ghazni and Herat. His aim was not just to plunder the wealth of India but also to establish Muslim rule over India. Prithviraj Chauhan was contemporary to Ghori. Prithviraj ascended the throne of Ajmer at the age of 14 and made many conquests. He conquered many small states of Rajasthan and Bundelkhand. The 1st battle between Muhammad Ghori and Prithviraj Chauhan was fought at Tarain in 1191 A.D. In this battle, Muhammad was completely routed, though his life was saved. Next year Prithviraj was defeated and captured in the 2nd battle of Tarain, fought in 1192 A.D. Prithviraj was executed and his city of Ajmer was sacked. The famous educational centre of Ajmer built by Visaladeva was converted into a mosque. This is known as the Adhai-din-ka-jhopra. 

Social Life

Sati System

In social life there was a greater rigidity of the caste system than before. The law givers of this period followed the earlier marriage rules. Remarriage was also permitted. Women had the right to inherit property. After coming into Muslim contact there began the Purdah system. The practice of sati became more prevalent to save them from failing into the hands of invaders. People also followed different type of social activities such as fairs, festivals and pilgrimages to sacred places and Centre. Sculptures depict various types of dresses and ornaments. There is a great variety and quality of textiles such as wool, cotton and silk. People followed different types of dresses and ornaments. The working in metals was pursued with much success. Agni Purana mentioned about 33 kind of Gems and methods of analysis of different qualities of precious and semi-precious stones. Various types of guilds (srenis) were flourishing in different branches of craft and industries. A guild consisted of people following a common profession such as artisans’ guild and a bankers’ guild. Artisans worked both in towns as well as in villages.

Economic Life 

Persian Wheel

There is an advance in scientific knowledge on agriculture, such as various types of soils, several varieties of grains, agricultural tools and implements and fertility of soil. Various means of Irrigation including the Persian Wheel (arahata) were known to the people prior to the coming of Muslims rulers. The most famous book of this period on agriculture is Krishi Parashar. Travelers of Arab mentioned Indian exports consisting of diverse products of aloe wood, sandalwood, camphor, nutmeg, clove, and other spices, coconut, vegetables, textiles, metals, precious and semi-precious stones, pearls and fisheries. In the list of imports, horses were the most important. The best breeds of horses were imported from central and Western Asia but the process of decline in trade and of urban centres had continued.

Education

During this time various types of educational institutions such as mathas, ghatikas, agraharas and viharas, the foremost were the temples, which developed as social, educational and cultural institutions besides being a source of religious inspiration for the people. Temples acted as banks, treasures, courts, Centre of learning and hospitals. They also hosted festivals, and other cultural activities. They promoted handicrafts and in turn provided employment to large number of people. Education was imparted in the temples and Viharas which had attached colleges. Courses in the colleges were practiced in a systematic manner demanding regular attendance and instructions. Professional education continued to be given through training imparted to apprentices in guilds and among groups of artisans. At a more popular level, the moral instructions were imparted by the saints and at homes by the elders. Thus various types of education became very important in upholding and strengthening the cultural unity of India.

Language and literature

Sanskrit remained the main language. Pali and prakrit were used for writing the Buddhist and Jain religious texts. There was also development of Apabrhamsha which was considered important on account of the fact that the modern Indian language have all evolved from it. One of the earliest works in an early form of Hindi was Prithviraj Raso by Chandbardai. This work which marks the beginning of bardic literature deals with the heroic deeds of Prithviraj Chauhan. Many historical texts in the Kavya style were also written. For example, the works of two writers in Kashmir, those are Somadeva’s Katha-sarit-sagar and Kalhana’s Rajatarangini. The later, a history of Kashmir, is a work of great importance as this is the first proper historical works in India. Various types of Kavyas were composed, which were inspired from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Gita Govinda by the Jayadeva is the famous one. In the field of prose literature Brihatakathamanjari by Kshemendra is famous.

Religion and Science

Radha added to Bhaktism

In Vaishnavism, particularly the legend of ten incarnations of Vishnu became more popular. The worship of Krishna along with Radha became very popular during this period. Their love was interpreted as the longing of the human soul (atma) for union with the universal soul (paramatma). Saivism became more popular through local variations such as Virasaivas, Lingayats and Pashupatis. Adi shankara and Ramanuja were great philosophers.

Nayanars & Alvars

The Bhakti movement led by Nayanars (saiva saints) and Alvars (Vaishnava saints) in South India spread all over India. These saints went from place to place carrying theirs messages of love and devotion. They disregarded the inequalities of caste. The Bhakti movement renewed emphasis on the Vedas. Buddhism witnessed the worship of Buddha became more elaborate accompanied by devotional songs, rites and ceremonies. Jainism gained popularity among the trading classes in northern India and western India and also gained extensive patronage in south India. The colossal Jain image at Sravanabelgola was set up. The Jain doctrines of four gifts (learning, food, medicine and shelter) helped to make Jainism popular among the people.  Tantricism is another sect which became popular. Tantric practice centered on prayers, special formulae, magical diagrams and symbols and the worship of a particular deity.

In the 1200 A.D. mathematician Bhaskaracharya wrote Sidhanta shiromani which is comprised of four parts. The book was translated into Arabian and Persian and transmitted to Europe. Books on medicine like Charaka and Sushruta samhitas were translated into Arabic and Tibetan. Madhava wrote several famous one is Rugvinishchaya on pathology. It was translated into Arabic under the patronage of Caliph Harun-al-Rashid.

Art and Architecture

Lingaraj Temple

The most famous temples during this period are of Odisha especially those of Bhubaneswar, Konark and Puri are superb examples of the Nagara style or North Indian style of Indian architecture. Each temple consists of a Vimana (towered shrine), Jagamohana (audience hall), Nata mandapa (dance hall), and Bhoga mandapa (offering hall). The Lingaraja temple of Bhubaneswar is located in an extensive area, with a number of subsidiary shrines. The spire of the Lingaraja temple is about 40 metres high. The spire is curved and has a rounded top.

Konark Temple

The sun temple in Konark, popularly known as the ‘Black Pagoda’, perhaps because of the black stone used, is unique in design. Since it is dedicated to the sun god, the whole temple is designed as a chariot with twelve massive wheels drawn by seven horses. Each wheel with it rich carving is a masterpiece. The human and animal figures carved out in Black stone are most lifelike. The poses of dancing apasaras depicted in sculptures.

Khajuraho Temple

Temples in Khajuraho (M.P.) built by the Chandellas are known for their carvings and sculptures. Kandariya Mahadeva temple is such a temple. The sikhara of these temples is graceful and refined and is adorned with sculptures. The Jain temples generally have octagonal domes and are decorated with subjects drawn from Jain mythology, for example, temple of Dilwara at Mount Abu in Rajasthan, which is a finest monument of Solanki king of Gujarat. The Abu temples are very attractive because of the delicate and intricate carvings in white marble. The Jain statue of Gomatesvara at Shravanabelgola in Mysore district (Karnataka) is one of the largest free standing Image (57 feet) in the world. The older tradition of decorating the walls of temples and palaces with murals continued. Miniature paintings also began during this time, which became popular in the Mughal period. The illustrations in manuscripts were also given. Small pictures on palm leaves were painted showing the scenes described in the texts.  

New elements added in Medieval Art and Architecture

Turkish Architecture

The Turks brought with them architectural ideas developed in Persia, Arabia and Central Asia. When these new rulers started erecting religious and secular buildings such as palaces and mosques, they came into contact with the traditions that had already been developed in India. The interaction of these two traditions resulted in a new synthesis of architectural styles. The ancient Indian buildings were decorated with beautiful carving and sculpture while the Muslim buildings were marked by simplicity and lack of adornment. When the new buildings began to be erected, the two styles were gradually synthesized into a new and unique style.

Earlier Murals

The rulers of the sultanate were great patrons of architecture and under them the process of synthesis started. It continued with many regional variations in the different kingdoms, but during the Mughal period, the flowering of this synthesis took place. The distinctive features of Muslim Architecture i.e. the mosque consisted of a large, rectangular open courtyard surrounded by arcades on all four sides. The mehra which faces Mecca indicates the direction to the prayer. The call to worship was made from a tall tower or minaret. Another characteristic feature was the arch in the gateway and other places. The dome was also another prominent feature of the mosque and the mausoleum. The chief decorative element was sculpturing the building with geometrical designs and lettering in calligraphic styles.

Ancient Religions of India

Hinduism, Jainism And Buddhism

(Sanatana Dharma known as Hinduism is older than Buddhism and Jainism) 

OM

The worship of Mother Goddess both in stone age and Indus civilization, Siva Pashupati, Siva-lingas, Pipal tree, etc. found in the Harappan civilization refers that many of the religious aspects of Hinduism began then.

Hinduism

Hindus believe in supreme divine spirit called Parama Brahma. Brahma is present as soul in everything and at every place and shows itself in many different ways. People can join Parama Brhma in three ways: by dedicating their work to him, by prayer and love, and by leading a spiritual life after renouncing the world. The Hindu’s believed that until a person’s soul is joined with the Paramatma their soul is born again and again. In each life the person is rewarded or punished for what he or she has done in the previous life. The supreme aim is to join Parama Brahma and free oneself from the rebirth cycle.

Hinduism laid great stress on Varnashramdharma. According to this, life of an individual was divided into the following four stages. These four stages of life were meant to be followed by all individuals, irrespective of their caste, creed, and belief. It was meant as an ideal way of life leading to salvation.

• Brahmacharin – After the sacred thread ceremony the person put his childhood behind, became brahmacharin, leading a celibate and austere life as a student at the home of his teacher.
• Grihastha – After completing his education he returned to his parent’s home, got married and led a life of house holder.                                       
• Vanaprastha – After completing his household responsibilities, he left his house as a hermit to live in forest.
• Sanyasin – By meditation and penance he freed his soul from material things, until at last, as a very old man, he left his hermitage and became a homeless wanderer with all his earthly ties broken.

Hinduism believes in Vasundhaiva Kutumbakam (where whole world is one family) and Sarvadharma Sambhava (all religions are equal). Hinduism lays emphasis on ethics, doctrine of non-violence and virtues such as mercy, compassion, friendliness, charity and benevolence. Hinduism favours tolerance and kindness. An important aspect of Hinduism is the doctrine of Bhakti or devotion, which is added later.  Upanishads are the greatest works of philosophy and knowledge, which do not give emphasis on rituals. Following the philosophical tradition of Upanishads and six philosophies in Hinduism quest for salvation through knowledge continued. This gave rise to Jainism and Buddhism.

Jainism

Jaina

According to tradition, the founder of Jain religion was first Tirthankara Adinath. Much importance was not given in Indian history to the earlier twenty-two tirthnkaras. Twenty third Tirthankara was Parasnath who existed about 8th century B.C. Vardhaman Mahavira was the twenty-fourth Tirthankara.

Vardhaman Mahavira was born in the city of Vaishali in Bihar in 540 B.C. He belonged to the republican tribe of lichchhavis. He was moved by the sufferings of the people. So, he left home at the age of 30 in search of truth and to find answers to the questions about life. At the age of 42 he attained Kaivalya or supreme knowledge through which he conquered the feeling of pleasure and pain. Therefore he is known as Jina or conqurer. He supported the teachings of 23 earlier Tirthankaras and added his own thought to theirs.This religion propagated by Mahavira and his predecessors came to be called Jainism.

Mahavira said that there was little use in performing the Vedic ceremonies and calling upon the gods for help. It was better to lead a good life and not to do wrong. If a man led a good life, his soul would be made free and he would not be born again in the world. Jainism teaches five doctrines: 

• Speak truth, 
• Possess no property, 
• Do not injure any living being, 
• Do not receive anything which is given freely, and 
• Observe chastity. 

He wanted his followers lead a simple life. Mahavira also laid stress upon the Triratna or 3 jewels of life. They were 

• Right faith, 
• Right knowledge and 
• Right action. 

This would lead his followers to a virtuous life. His followers were also forbidden to kill any living being, whether man or animal or insect. This was ahimsa. Thus Jainism also laid stress on the doctrine of Ahimsa.

The religion was preached in a language (Prakrit) spoken by the common people and not in Sanskrit, because by now only the educated upper class used Sanskrit. Later in Jainism two sects were developed-Shvetambaras or those who wear the white dress and Digamabaras or those who do not wear any cloth. Jainism spread in many parts of India, particularly Karnataka, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Malwa, Gujarat and Rajasthan.

Buddhism

Buddha

Buddha is a title and not a name. “It means the enlightened one”, “the one who knows the truth”. Buddha’s real name was Siddhartha. He was born in Sakya clan in Lumbini grove near the city of Kapilavastu (Nepal Tarai), some years after the birth of Mahavira. His father’s name was Suddhodhan and Mother’s Maya Devi. He saw three sights which altered his whole life: a man feeble with old age, another one suffering from some terrible disease, and a dead body being taken for the cremation. These sights filled him with a longing to find some way to overcome all kinds of sufferings and to discover the true meaning of life. Therefore, although he was married and had a baby son, named Rahul, he left his home at the age of 29 in search of truth and meaning of life. After a long meditation under a pipal tree, he got Enlightenment in Bodhgaya. 

The Buddha also emphasised on Ahimsa. He forbade killing of animals as part of the religious sacrifices. (The breeding of animals was important to agriculture in those days and there was little point in killing animals without reason. This concern for animal life also influenced the growth of vegetarian food habits.)

Buddha said that the cause of suffering is desire i.e. the wish to live and possess various things. Buddha spoke of four noble truths:

• There is something in the world which accompanies all the normal happenings of life, birth, sickness, old age, death, etc. 
• Suffering is caused by nature.
• To remove this suffering one should become free from desire;
• The desire can be removed by following Ashtangika Marga or eight fold path.

His prescribed eight fold path would lead to virtuous life. The purpose of leading a good life was to purify the mind and attain Nirvana, when there would be no more re-birth i.e. a state of peace and freedom from suffering. They are: 

• Right beliefs, 
• Right aims, 
• Right speech, 
• Right conduct, 
• Right occupation, 
• Right effort, 
• Right thinking, and 
• Right meditation. 

The Buddha too did not favour the Vedic sacrifices and the many rituals which people had to perform. He objected to the importance given to the Varnas. The Buddha started monasteries (viharas) which were places where monks lived and spent their life praying and preaching Buddhism. The monasteries were also used as schools and acted as important centres of education. Buddha spent the rest of his life travelling from place to place preaching his doctrine. Anybody could join the Sangha or Buddhist religious order regardless of caste or occupation. Women were also admitted to the Sangha.

Gautama Buddha was simply a teacher who could show men the true path of life to follow. His teachings were recorded in Tripitaka. Tripitaka is divided into three parts. The first states the rules for the monks, the second contains the sermons of Buddha, and the third deals with the Buddhist system of thought. The early Buddhist literature was in Pali. The Vinaya Pitaka is concerned mainly with the rules of the organization of the monasteries. The Sutta Pitaka consists mainly of dialogues between the Buddha and his followers.

The Milinda-Panha is another great Buddhist work consisting of dialogues between the Indo-Greek kings Menander and the Buddhist philosopher Nagasena. Another great Buddhist work consists of hundreds of Jataka stories which became the subjects of Buddhist sculpture and are popular all over the world for their wisdom. Later many Buddhist works were written in Sanskrit. Of these the most famous is the Buddhacharita or ‘life of Buddha’ by Ashvaghosha. 

Buddhism and Jainism had followers among the crafts- men, traders and peasants (in towns) because they felt that these religions were not difficult to practice. On the other hand the Brahmans had made their religion difficult to practice because of the many ceremonies and rituals. Buddhism opposed to elaborate ceremonies because, not only they were expensive but they also encouraged superstition. Wealthy merchants donated money to the Buddhists and beautiful monuments were built. These were decorated with the finest sculpture. Buddhism spread in many parts of India by the Buddhist monks. It influenced every aspects of Indian life. Buddhist monks later took Indian culture to other parts of Asia- Central Asia, China, Tibet, and South-east Asia.