History of South India in the Early Medieval Period

(Historians called Chola kings of this period as Imperial Cholas to distinguish them from earlier ones)

In the 4th century A.D. there emerged the Chalukyas (in present Karnataka) and the Pallavas (in present A.P. and Tamil Nadu) in South India. Both these dynasties became very powerful and ruled over the region for about 400 years. However with the reversal of fortune, the Cholas started emerging again as a great power in south India around eighth century A.D. by defeating the Pallava kings and other local rulers. The Cholas bought about the political unification of large parts of the country.

Imperial Cholas

Imperial Cholas

From the mid-ninth century A.D., the Cholas ruled over Tamil Nadu, parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. To distinguish these kings from earlier ones, who ruled up to 4th century A.D., historians call them as the Imperial Cholas. They built a powerful Navy and conquered Sri Lanka, parts of South East Asia and the islands of Maldives and the Lakshadweep. Thus the Imperial Cholas helped in spreading the Indian culture abroad. The founder of the Imperial Cholas was Vijayalaya (846-871 A.D.), who conquered Tanjore from Pallavas. Parantaka I (907-953 A.D.) another famous king defeated the Pandya kings of Madurai and extended the territory further south. He assumed the title of Maduraikondavana i.e. the conqueror of Madurai. 

Rajarajesvara temple

Rajaraja I (985-1016 A.D.) another famous king, first defeated the Chera kings and captured the region of Kerala and then defeated and captured the Pandya kings and took possession of Madurai. The northern part of Sri Lanka became a Chola province under the name Mummadi Cholamandalam under his expedition. After this he overran the Chalukyas of Vengi. He also launched campaigns against Kalinga and the old islands of Lakshadweep and Maldivies. Rajaraj I conquered all these territories and built a maritime empire to control its trade and commerce. He assumed various titles and built the famous temple of Tanjore which is known as Rajarajesvara temple.

Buddha at Nagapatnam

Rajendra I, son and successor of Rajaraja I annexed the whole of Sri Lanka and reasserted his authority over Kerala and the Pandyas. He turned his attention towards the north and his armies marched right up to river Ganga in the Pala kingdom. After this he adopted the title of Gangaikonda and established a new capital known as Gangaikonda-Cholapuram near the mouth of River Kaveri. He possessed a powerful fleet, which gained success across the Bay of Bengal. He sent a naval expedition in 1025 A.D. for the conquest of the Sri Vijaya Empire. (Sri Vijaya Empire included Sumatra, Java and Malay peninsula). He conquered many ports of Sri Vijaya. The rulers of the Sailendra dynasty of the Sri Vijaya Empire were on friendly terms with the Chola kings. The Sailendra king built a Buddhist monastery at Nagapatnam and Rajendra I on his part had endowed the income of Village for its up keep.

In the 13th century, the Cholas were succeeded by the Pandyas of Madurai and the Hoysalas of the Dvara-samudra (Mysore). The Chalukyas of Kalyani in the Deccan were succeeded by the Kakatiyas, who ruled from Warangal (A.P.) and the Yadavas, who ruled from Devgiri (modern Daulatabad in Maharashtra). These dynasties flourish till 14th century A.D. In the beginning of the 14th century A.D. Turkish Sultans of Delhi finally cast their eyes on Deccan and destroyed these kingdoms and captured the areas.

Chola Administration

The king went on regular tours to ensure efficient administration. The Chola Empire was divided into Mandalams (provinces). These Mandalams were further divided into Valanadus (districts). The tax on the land was collected by the village assemblies. The village assemblies were responsible for maintaining tanks used for agricultural prosperity. There were three types of village assemblies. They were the Ur, Sabha or Mahasabha and Nagaram. The Ur was the assembly of common villagers. The Sabha was the assembly of learned Brahmins and the Nagaram was the assembly of merchants, traders and artisans. The Uttarmerur temple inscription gives a detailed description of the functioning of these assemblies. There were provisions of land survey, Classification of various types of lands and assessment of land revenue. Chola rulers also built a network of roads for the purpose of trade and communication.

Economy and society

Shiva-Nataraj

There were two famous guilds of merchants which flourished for more than 300 yrs. They were Manigramam and Nandadesa. South Indian merchants called Chettis traded with countries of Arabia, Persia, China and the countries of South East Asia. 

Women were held in great honour and enjoyed freedom in the society that is ruled by Imperial Cholas. They were imparted education in various branches of learning and fine arts. Each temple had an attached Math, which provided free education, food, clothing and boarding to the students.

Religion

The rulers patronized Buddhism and Jainism as well as Islam and Christianity. There are various Muslim and Christian communities settled in south India. Ramanuja, a religious preacher, who was born at Tirupati around 1017 A.D. tried to assimilate Bhakti to the traditions of Vedas. He made the study of Vedas more popular. Madhava, another religious preacher who preached Bhakti towards Lord Krishna. In south India Nagapattnam and Kanchi were the famous centers of Buddhist learning.

Adi Shankara

But, this was the period of Adi Shankara, who was born in Kerala around 788 A.D. He became well versed in Vedas and other religious scriptures at very early age. He kept moving all over the country preaching his philosophy and debating with the learned scholars. The philosophy of him is known as Advaita meaning non-dualism. He organized ten branches of Advaita philosophy and established four Mathas, namely, the Jyotirmatha at Badrinath in the north, Saradapitha at Dwarka in the west, Govardhanamatha at Puri in the east and Shringerimatha at Kerala in the south. Each math is said to have a Gotra, presiding deities both male and female and Vedic Mahavakya. The location of these maths show that Adi Shankara was looking at India as one religious and cultural unit.

Art and Architecture

Chariot wheel of Chola Art

The Chola temples show the culmination of a particular style of temple architecture known as Dravidian style. They are marked by the square Vimana in pyramidal shape, Mandapa, Gopuram and halls with profusely decorated columns. The most famous temple of this period was the Brihadeswara temple at Tanjore, also known as Rajarajeswara temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva. 

Starting during the late Pallava period, the Bronze sculpture reached heights of glory during the Chola rule. The image of the Nataraja (the lord of dance) from Tanjore is a masterpiece of the Chola bronze sculpture.

Literature

In the southern parts this period saw the flourishing of Sanskrit literature. One of the works is philosophical commentaries of Shankara. Another important Sanskrit work of this period is Bilhana’s Vikramankadevacharita, a biography of the Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI. However, this period is more important for the growth of literature in Dravidian languages. Sanskrit and Tamil were the mediums of expression. 

Canada and Telugu also developed during this period and made popular by Bhakti saints. Nripatunga wrote a great work of poetry in Kannada called the Kavirajamarga. For a few centuries, the Kannada literature was deeply influenced by Jainism. Pampa wrote the Adipurana and the Vikramarjuna-Vijaya, the former dealing with the life of the first Jain Tirthankara and the later based on the Mahabharata. Poona wrote the Shantipurana, a legendary history of the 16th Tirthankara. Another great Kannada writer was Ranna, a contemporary of Pampa and Poona. Two of his famous works are the Ajitapurana and the Gadayuddha. So Pampa, Poona and Ranna are known as the three jewels of the early Kannada literature.

Kamban wrote the Ramayanam in Tamil. In Tamil, this was the period of composition of the great hymns of the Alvars and the Nayannars. The hymns of the Alvars are collected into the Nalayira-Divya Prabandham. Some of the Nayannar works are the Thiruvasagam, the Thirumanairam and the Thiruttondattogai. The Mahabharata and the Ramayana were translated into south Indian languages. Silappadikaram and Manimekalai were the epics occupy a high place in Tamil literature and are revered like Ramayana and the Mahabharata. 

Telugu also produced great religious and secular literature in this period. This included the translations of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, works of grammar, science and other secular literature. Nannaya was among the first Telugu poets, who translated the Mahabharata into Telugu and also wrote on Telugu grammar. Literature in Malayalam also started growing.  

History of North India in the early medieval period

(The defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan at the hands of Muhammad Ghori resulted in the foundation of Muslim rule in India)

Three Kingdoms

The period between the death of Harsha (in the mid-seventh century A.D.) and the establishment of Delhi Sultunate (in the 12th century A.D.) covers a span of 500 years. In political life this period was dominated by the presence of a larger number of states. That’s why the general political picture was that of fragmentation. These centuries also witnessed rise of some important kingdoms:

• in the east there were Palas 
• in the Deccan there were Rashtrakuts 
• in the north there were Gurjara Pratiharas.

These kingdoms acted as a bridge between different regions because the cultural traditions of these kingdoms remained stable as they often fought among themselves. This was perhaps because the changes in these areas took place more gradually than the changes in political spheres. The close interaction among various regions resulted in the formation of definite forms of some common cultural traditions which can be seen in the literature, education, art, and architecture of the period.

Gurjara Pratiharas

The Gurjara Pratiharas were the early Rajputs who began their rule from Gujarat and south western Rajasthan. Later they ruled from Kanauj. Nagahata I was the 1st great ruler of the dynasty. He defeated the Muslim forces of Arab. Then, Bhoja I (A.D. 836-885) succeeded in restoring the territories of the kingdom which was lost for a short time to the Palas of Bengal. He was a devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title of Adivaraha, which has been incorporated as a legend on some of his coins. During the reign of Mahendrapala I, son and successor of Bhoja I, the Pratihara Empire stretched almost from the Himalayas in the north to the Vindhyas in the south and from Bengal in the east to Gujarat in the west. The Pratiharas ruled over north India for more than 300 years. The Arab travellers, such as Sulaiman and Masudi, who visited India in the 9th and 10th centuries A.D., wrote about the power and prestige of the Pratiharas and the vastness of their empire. The great Sanskrit poet Rajasekhar adorned the court of Mahendrapala I. His famous work is Kavyamimansa.

Palas

The history of Bengal from the death of Harsha up to the ascendancy of the Palas around the end of 8th century A.D. remains obscure. At this time West Bengal known as Gauda and East Bengal as Vanga. Bengal was witnessing an internal disorder termed as Matsyanyaya in which the rule of the strong devouring the weak prevailed. This led to an unrest after which Gopala was elected by the people to put an end to Matsyanyaya. Gopala restored peace in the kingdom and laid the foundation of Pala dynasty. Dharamapala and Devapala were the most famous rulers of this dynasty. The Palas ruled over Bihar, Bengal, and parts of Odisha and Assam with many ups and downs in their fortune for over four centuries.

The Arab traveller Sulaiman calls the Pala Kingdom Ruhma (or Dharma, short for Dharmapala). He wrote, in Bhoja’s kingdom exchanges are carried on with silver and gold. He also wrote there is no country in India safe from robbers. Dharmapala founded the famous Buddhist monastery at Vikramshila, which became 2nd only to Nalanda in fame as a Centre for higher learning. During Pala’s reign the fame of Nalanda University spread all over the world. During Devapala’s reign the king of Suvarnadvipa (South East Asia) Balaputradeva built a monastery in Nalanda and requested Devapala to endow the income of 5 villages for the maintenance of the monastery.

Rashtrakutas

Dantivarman, also known as Dantidurga, was the founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty in the Deccan. His capital was at Manyakhet or Malkhed, near modern Sholapur in Maharashtra. Dantivarman was succeeded by his uncle Krishna-I who extended his kingdom up to Karnataka. Then, Dhruva and Govinda-III extended the empire further and waged war for supremacy over the Palas and Pratiharas in east and north India. Dhruva added the emblem of Ganga and Yamuna to his imperial insignia. Amoghavarsha-I (A.D. 814-878) ruled for 64 years. He wrote Kavirajamarga, which is one of the earliest Kannada works on poetics. Krishna-III launched a campign against the Chola ruler of Tanjore and his armies reached up to Rameshwaram, where he built a pillar of victory and a temple. Thus, Rashtrakutas ruled for more than 300 years. They equally patronised Sanskrit, Prakrit and Kannada languages. They not only patronised Saivism and Vaishnavism, but also Jainism, Buddhism, and Islam. The Muslim merchants were permitted to settle in their kingdom, build mosques and preach their religion. The rock cut temples excavated at Ellora belonging to Brahmanical, Buddhist, and Jain sects are the symbols of their religious tolerance and are one of the splendours of Indian arts. The Kailash temple at Ellora built by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna-I, is an unrivalled and magnificent piece of art.

Tripartite Struggle

The struggle among the above 3 dynasties for supremacy over each other is known as tripartite struggle. It is said that the main cause for this struggle was the desire to possess the city of Kanauj, which was then a symbol of Sovereignty. In this struggle their military equipment, administrative machinery and the strategic concepts were more or less the same. Due to this balance of power the victory of one king over the other did not last very long. The defeated powers often regained their position.

Rajputs

Rajput Powers emerged in 11th century

Around the end of the 10th century A.D. the powers of the Pratiharas, Palas and Rashtrakuts declined almost simultaneously. Over these territories other dynasties came into existence. Most of them were Rajputs. According to tradition there are four Rajput clans namely Paramara, Pratihara, Chauhan and Chalukya who were born from fire altars. Therefore, they are also known as Agnikulas. Famous Rajput dynasties includes, The Gahadhavalas of Kanauj, Paramaras of Malwa, Chandellas of Khajuraho, Chauhans of Ajmer, Kalachuris of Tripuri, Chalukyas of Gujarat and Tomars of Delhi. 

Tomar king Anangapala built the city of Delhi (Dhilika) in 736 A.D. During this period Bengal was ruled by Senas. The Ahoms ruled over Assam. Odisha was ruled by the Kesaries from Bhubaneswar and then by the Gangas from Kalinga-nagara. Kashmir was ruled by three dynasties i.e. the Karkota, Utpala and Loharas. Lalitaditya was one of the most famous rulers of Kashmir during this period. The conflicts among different kingdoms for supremacy made them weak. Because of this they could neither defend themselves individually nor unite against the Muslim invasions.

Turkish Invasions

Mahmud Attacks

It was in this period that India’s contact with the new religion of Islam began. The contacts began late in the 7th century through the Arab traders. Later, in early 8th century, the Arabs conquered Sind. In the 10th century, the Turks emerged as a powerful force in central and west Asia and carved out kingdoms for themselves. The Turks first invaded India during the late 10th and early 11th century and Punjab came under Turkish rule. Another series of Turkish invasions in the late 12th and early 13th century led to the establishment of the Sultanate of Delhi. The first of these invaders was Mahmud of Ghazni (Ghazni was a small kingdom situated in Afghanistan). He ascended the throne in 998 A.D. Shortly after his accession he led as many as 17 expeditions into India between 1000 and 1027 A.D. He invaded India to plunder the big towns and rich temples for their wealth. The 15th invasion of Mahmud against the temple of Somnath, situated on the seacoast in Gujarat, was the most disastrous one. During the course of his expedition, Mahmud annexed Punjab and Multan to his empire. In one of his campaigns Mahmud was accompanied by Alberuni. Alberuni was a great Persian scholar. He lived for many years in India, learnt Sanskrit and wrote a book on India known as Tahkik-i-hind. After the death of Mahmud in 1030 A.D., India enjoyed a respite for about 150 years from foreign invasions. 

In 1175 A.D. Shahbuddin Muhammad Ghori attacked northern India. This ultimately led to the foundation of the Sultanate of Delhi. Muhammad Ghori belonged to the Ruling house of Ghor in Afghanistan. His kingdom comprised the parts of modern Afghanistan between Ghazni and Herat. His aim was not just to plunder the wealth of India but also to establish Muslim rule over India. Prithviraj Chauhan was contemporary to Ghori. Prithviraj ascended the throne of Ajmer at the age of 14 and made many conquests. He conquered many small states of Rajasthan and Bundelkhand. The 1st battle between Muhammad Ghori and Prithviraj Chauhan was fought at Tarain in 1191 A.D. In this battle, Muhammad was completely routed, though his life was saved. Next year Prithviraj was defeated and captured in the 2nd battle of Tarain, fought in 1192 A.D. Prithviraj was executed and his city of Ajmer was sacked. The famous educational centre of Ajmer built by Visaladeva was converted into a mosque. This is known as the Adhai-din-ka-jhopra. 

Social Life

Sati System

In social life there was a greater rigidity of the caste system than before. The law givers of this period followed the earlier marriage rules. Remarriage was also permitted. Women had the right to inherit property. After coming into Muslim contact there began the Purdah system. The practice of sati became more prevalent to save them from failing into the hands of invaders. People also followed different type of social activities such as fairs, festivals and pilgrimages to sacred places and Centre. Sculptures depict various types of dresses and ornaments. There is a great variety and quality of textiles such as wool, cotton and silk. People followed different types of dresses and ornaments. The working in metals was pursued with much success. Agni Purana mentioned about 33 kind of Gems and methods of analysis of different qualities of precious and semi-precious stones. Various types of guilds (srenis) were flourishing in different branches of craft and industries. A guild consisted of people following a common profession such as artisans’ guild and a bankers’ guild. Artisans worked both in towns as well as in villages.

Economic Life 

Persian Wheel

There is an advance in scientific knowledge on agriculture, such as various types of soils, several varieties of grains, agricultural tools and implements and fertility of soil. Various means of Irrigation including the Persian Wheel (arahata) were known to the people prior to the coming of Muslims rulers. The most famous book of this period on agriculture is Krishi Parashar. Travelers of Arab mentioned Indian exports consisting of diverse products of aloe wood, sandalwood, camphor, nutmeg, clove, and other spices, coconut, vegetables, textiles, metals, precious and semi-precious stones, pearls and fisheries. In the list of imports, horses were the most important. The best breeds of horses were imported from central and Western Asia but the process of decline in trade and of urban centres had continued.

Education

During this time various types of educational institutions such as mathas, ghatikas, agraharas and viharas, the foremost were the temples, which developed as social, educational and cultural institutions besides being a source of religious inspiration for the people. Temples acted as banks, treasures, courts, Centre of learning and hospitals. They also hosted festivals, and other cultural activities. They promoted handicrafts and in turn provided employment to large number of people. Education was imparted in the temples and Viharas which had attached colleges. Courses in the colleges were practiced in a systematic manner demanding regular attendance and instructions. Professional education continued to be given through training imparted to apprentices in guilds and among groups of artisans. At a more popular level, the moral instructions were imparted by the saints and at homes by the elders. Thus various types of education became very important in upholding and strengthening the cultural unity of India.

Language and literature

Sanskrit remained the main language. Pali and prakrit were used for writing the Buddhist and Jain religious texts. There was also development of Apabrhamsha which was considered important on account of the fact that the modern Indian language have all evolved from it. One of the earliest works in an early form of Hindi was Prithviraj Raso by Chandbardai. This work which marks the beginning of bardic literature deals with the heroic deeds of Prithviraj Chauhan. Many historical texts in the Kavya style were also written. For example, the works of two writers in Kashmir, those are Somadeva’s Katha-sarit-sagar and Kalhana’s Rajatarangini. The later, a history of Kashmir, is a work of great importance as this is the first proper historical works in India. Various types of Kavyas were composed, which were inspired from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Gita Govinda by the Jayadeva is the famous one. In the field of prose literature Brihatakathamanjari by Kshemendra is famous.

Religion and Science

Radha added to Bhaktism

In Vaishnavism, particularly the legend of ten incarnations of Vishnu became more popular. The worship of Krishna along with Radha became very popular during this period. Their love was interpreted as the longing of the human soul (atma) for union with the universal soul (paramatma). Saivism became more popular through local variations such as Virasaivas, Lingayats and Pashupatis. Adi shankara and Ramanuja were great philosophers.

Nayanars & Alvars

The Bhakti movement led by Nayanars (saiva saints) and Alvars (Vaishnava saints) in South India spread all over India. These saints went from place to place carrying theirs messages of love and devotion. They disregarded the inequalities of caste. The Bhakti movement renewed emphasis on the Vedas. Buddhism witnessed the worship of Buddha became more elaborate accompanied by devotional songs, rites and ceremonies. Jainism gained popularity among the trading classes in northern India and western India and also gained extensive patronage in south India. The colossal Jain image at Sravanabelgola was set up. The Jain doctrines of four gifts (learning, food, medicine and shelter) helped to make Jainism popular among the people.  Tantricism is another sect which became popular. Tantric practice centered on prayers, special formulae, magical diagrams and symbols and the worship of a particular deity.

In the 1200 A.D. mathematician Bhaskaracharya wrote Sidhanta shiromani which is comprised of four parts. The book was translated into Arabian and Persian and transmitted to Europe. Books on medicine like Charaka and Sushruta samhitas were translated into Arabic and Tibetan. Madhava wrote several famous one is Rugvinishchaya on pathology. It was translated into Arabic under the patronage of Caliph Harun-al-Rashid.

Art and Architecture

Lingaraj Temple

The most famous temples during this period are of Odisha especially those of Bhubaneswar, Konark and Puri are superb examples of the Nagara style or North Indian style of Indian architecture. Each temple consists of a Vimana (towered shrine), Jagamohana (audience hall), Nata mandapa (dance hall), and Bhoga mandapa (offering hall). The Lingaraja temple of Bhubaneswar is located in an extensive area, with a number of subsidiary shrines. The spire of the Lingaraja temple is about 40 metres high. The spire is curved and has a rounded top.

Konark Temple

The sun temple in Konark, popularly known as the ‘Black Pagoda’, perhaps because of the black stone used, is unique in design. Since it is dedicated to the sun god, the whole temple is designed as a chariot with twelve massive wheels drawn by seven horses. Each wheel with it rich carving is a masterpiece. The human and animal figures carved out in Black stone are most lifelike. The poses of dancing apasaras depicted in sculptures.

Khajuraho Temple

Temples in Khajuraho (M.P.) built by the Chandellas are known for their carvings and sculptures. Kandariya Mahadeva temple is such a temple. The sikhara of these temples is graceful and refined and is adorned with sculptures. The Jain temples generally have octagonal domes and are decorated with subjects drawn from Jain mythology, for example, temple of Dilwara at Mount Abu in Rajasthan, which is a finest monument of Solanki king of Gujarat. The Abu temples are very attractive because of the delicate and intricate carvings in white marble. The Jain statue of Gomatesvara at Shravanabelgola in Mysore district (Karnataka) is one of the largest free standing Image (57 feet) in the world. The older tradition of decorating the walls of temples and palaces with murals continued. Miniature paintings also began during this time, which became popular in the Mughal period. The illustrations in manuscripts were also given. Small pictures on palm leaves were painted showing the scenes described in the texts.  

New elements added in Medieval Art and Architecture

Turkish Architecture

The Turks brought with them architectural ideas developed in Persia, Arabia and Central Asia. When these new rulers started erecting religious and secular buildings such as palaces and mosques, they came into contact with the traditions that had already been developed in India. The interaction of these two traditions resulted in a new synthesis of architectural styles. The ancient Indian buildings were decorated with beautiful carving and sculpture while the Muslim buildings were marked by simplicity and lack of adornment. When the new buildings began to be erected, the two styles were gradually synthesized into a new and unique style.

Earlier Murals

The rulers of the sultanate were great patrons of architecture and under them the process of synthesis started. It continued with many regional variations in the different kingdoms, but during the Mughal period, the flowering of this synthesis took place. The distinctive features of Muslim Architecture i.e. the mosque consisted of a large, rectangular open courtyard surrounded by arcades on all four sides. The mehra which faces Mecca indicates the direction to the prayer. The call to worship was made from a tall tower or minaret. Another characteristic feature was the arch in the gateway and other places. The dome was also another prominent feature of the mosque and the mausoleum. The chief decorative element was sculpturing the building with geometrical designs and lettering in calligraphic styles.

Ancient Religions of India

Hinduism, Jainism And Buddhism

(Sanatana Dharma known as Hinduism is older than Buddhism and Jainism) 

OM

The worship of Mother Goddess both in stone age and Indus civilization, Siva Pashupati, Siva-lingas, Pipal tree, etc. found in the Harappan civilization refers that many of the religious aspects of Hinduism began then.

Hinduism

Hindus believe in supreme divine spirit called Parama Brahma. Brahma is present as soul in everything and at every place and shows itself in many different ways. People can join Parama Brhma in three ways: by dedicating their work to him, by prayer and love, and by leading a spiritual life after renouncing the world. The Hindu’s believed that until a person’s soul is joined with the Paramatma their soul is born again and again. In each life the person is rewarded or punished for what he or she has done in the previous life. The supreme aim is to join Parama Brahma and free oneself from the rebirth cycle.

Hinduism laid great stress on Varnashramdharma. According to this, life of an individual was divided into the following four stages. These four stages of life were meant to be followed by all individuals, irrespective of their caste, creed, and belief. It was meant as an ideal way of life leading to salvation.

• Brahmacharin – After the sacred thread ceremony the person put his childhood behind, became brahmacharin, leading a celibate and austere life as a student at the home of his teacher.
• Grihastha – After completing his education he returned to his parent’s home, got married and led a life of house holder.                                       
• Vanaprastha – After completing his household responsibilities, he left his house as a hermit to live in forest.
• Sanyasin – By meditation and penance he freed his soul from material things, until at last, as a very old man, he left his hermitage and became a homeless wanderer with all his earthly ties broken.

Hinduism believes in Vasundhaiva Kutumbakam (where whole world is one family) and Sarvadharma Sambhava (all religions are equal). Hinduism lays emphasis on ethics, doctrine of non-violence and virtues such as mercy, compassion, friendliness, charity and benevolence. Hinduism favours tolerance and kindness. An important aspect of Hinduism is the doctrine of Bhakti or devotion, which is added later.  Upanishads are the greatest works of philosophy and knowledge, which do not give emphasis on rituals. Following the philosophical tradition of Upanishads and six philosophies in Hinduism quest for salvation through knowledge continued. This gave rise to Jainism and Buddhism.

Jainism

Jaina

According to tradition, the founder of Jain religion was first Tirthankara Adinath. Much importance was not given in Indian history to the earlier twenty-two tirthnkaras. Twenty third Tirthankara was Parasnath who existed about 8th century B.C. Vardhaman Mahavira was the twenty-fourth Tirthankara.

Vardhaman Mahavira was born in the city of Vaishali in Bihar in 540 B.C. He belonged to the republican tribe of lichchhavis. He was moved by the sufferings of the people. So, he left home at the age of 30 in search of truth and to find answers to the questions about life. At the age of 42 he attained Kaivalya or supreme knowledge through which he conquered the feeling of pleasure and pain. Therefore he is known as Jina or conqurer. He supported the teachings of 23 earlier Tirthankaras and added his own thought to theirs.This religion propagated by Mahavira and his predecessors came to be called Jainism.

Mahavira said that there was little use in performing the Vedic ceremonies and calling upon the gods for help. It was better to lead a good life and not to do wrong. If a man led a good life, his soul would be made free and he would not be born again in the world. Jainism teaches five doctrines: 

• Speak truth, 
• Possess no property, 
• Do not injure any living being, 
• Do not receive anything which is given freely, and 
• Observe chastity. 

He wanted his followers lead a simple life. Mahavira also laid stress upon the Triratna or 3 jewels of life. They were 

• Right faith, 
• Right knowledge and 
• Right action. 

This would lead his followers to a virtuous life. His followers were also forbidden to kill any living being, whether man or animal or insect. This was ahimsa. Thus Jainism also laid stress on the doctrine of Ahimsa.

The religion was preached in a language (Prakrit) spoken by the common people and not in Sanskrit, because by now only the educated upper class used Sanskrit. Later in Jainism two sects were developed-Shvetambaras or those who wear the white dress and Digamabaras or those who do not wear any cloth. Jainism spread in many parts of India, particularly Karnataka, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Malwa, Gujarat and Rajasthan.

Buddhism

Buddha

Buddha is a title and not a name. “It means the enlightened one”, “the one who knows the truth”. Buddha’s real name was Siddhartha. He was born in Sakya clan in Lumbini grove near the city of Kapilavastu (Nepal Tarai), some years after the birth of Mahavira. His father’s name was Suddhodhan and Mother’s Maya Devi. He saw three sights which altered his whole life: a man feeble with old age, another one suffering from some terrible disease, and a dead body being taken for the cremation. These sights filled him with a longing to find some way to overcome all kinds of sufferings and to discover the true meaning of life. Therefore, although he was married and had a baby son, named Rahul, he left his home at the age of 29 in search of truth and meaning of life. After a long meditation under a pipal tree, he got Enlightenment in Bodhgaya. 

The Buddha also emphasised on Ahimsa. He forbade killing of animals as part of the religious sacrifices. (The breeding of animals was important to agriculture in those days and there was little point in killing animals without reason. This concern for animal life also influenced the growth of vegetarian food habits.)

Buddha said that the cause of suffering is desire i.e. the wish to live and possess various things. Buddha spoke of four noble truths:

• There is something in the world which accompanies all the normal happenings of life, birth, sickness, old age, death, etc. 
• Suffering is caused by nature.
• To remove this suffering one should become free from desire;
• The desire can be removed by following Ashtangika Marga or eight fold path.

His prescribed eight fold path would lead to virtuous life. The purpose of leading a good life was to purify the mind and attain Nirvana, when there would be no more re-birth i.e. a state of peace and freedom from suffering. They are: 

• Right beliefs, 
• Right aims, 
• Right speech, 
• Right conduct, 
• Right occupation, 
• Right effort, 
• Right thinking, and 
• Right meditation. 

The Buddha too did not favour the Vedic sacrifices and the many rituals which people had to perform. He objected to the importance given to the Varnas. The Buddha started monasteries (viharas) which were places where monks lived and spent their life praying and preaching Buddhism. The monasteries were also used as schools and acted as important centres of education. Buddha spent the rest of his life travelling from place to place preaching his doctrine. Anybody could join the Sangha or Buddhist religious order regardless of caste or occupation. Women were also admitted to the Sangha.

Gautama Buddha was simply a teacher who could show men the true path of life to follow. His teachings were recorded in Tripitaka. Tripitaka is divided into three parts. The first states the rules for the monks, the second contains the sermons of Buddha, and the third deals with the Buddhist system of thought. The early Buddhist literature was in Pali. The Vinaya Pitaka is concerned mainly with the rules of the organization of the monasteries. The Sutta Pitaka consists mainly of dialogues between the Buddha and his followers.

The Milinda-Panha is another great Buddhist work consisting of dialogues between the Indo-Greek kings Menander and the Buddhist philosopher Nagasena. Another great Buddhist work consists of hundreds of Jataka stories which became the subjects of Buddhist sculpture and are popular all over the world for their wisdom. Later many Buddhist works were written in Sanskrit. Of these the most famous is the Buddhacharita or ‘life of Buddha’ by Ashvaghosha. 

Buddhism and Jainism had followers among the crafts- men, traders and peasants (in towns) because they felt that these religions were not difficult to practice. On the other hand the Brahmans had made their religion difficult to practice because of the many ceremonies and rituals. Buddhism opposed to elaborate ceremonies because, not only they were expensive but they also encouraged superstition. Wealthy merchants donated money to the Buddhists and beautiful monuments were built. These were decorated with the finest sculpture. Buddhism spread in many parts of India by the Buddhist monks. It influenced every aspects of Indian life. Buddhist monks later took Indian culture to other parts of Asia- Central Asia, China, Tibet, and South-east Asia.

The Prehistoric Age

The Early Humans

(Human beings first appeared on earth only millions of years ago in Africa. Later they moved to Asia and Australia)

Stone tools & Implements

For many thousands of years of man’s early history, the only remains which historians can find are the crude stone tools fashioned and used for hunting and other purposes. These tools are often found lying along the terraces of rivers where people of those times used to roam about in search of wild game or in caves and rock shelters where they used to live. The period when stone tools were used is known as the Stone Age. The Stone Age covered a very long period of time. On the basis of the quality of the stone tools used, Stone Age is divided into three phases i.e. Early Stone Age (Paleolithic), Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic) and Late Stone Age (Neolithic).

Hunters and Food Gatherers-Paleolithic and Mesolithic age

In the beginning people were basically food gatherers and hunters. Hunters and gatherers often lived in hilly areas or by the side of a river or lake. They led a nomadic life. They moved from place to place in search of food and shelter. Men, women and children lived in groups to protect themselves from ferocious animals. In India, prehistoric stone tools have been found almost from all over except the Gangetic plains and the plains of Punjab.

In the beginning, food was perhaps eaten uncooked because humans had yet to learn the use of fire. In Paleolithic period itself humans learnt the use of fire and started eating cooked meal. Fire helped them to keep warm during the winter. They gathered around it and listened to the stories from elders. It also protected them from wild animals. The discovery of fire was accidental. The striking together of two pieces of stone called ‘flint’ produced a spark which, when it touched dry leaves and twigs, burst into a flame. Fire was a thing of wonder to start with, but later it came to be used in a variety of ways and contributed to many improvements in the pattern of living.

In the beginning human beings lived in groups in caves and rock shelters or amidst the leafy branches of large trees and in open. But later they started building small huts supported by wooden posts and thatched it with grass, leaves and sometimes with hide. The skins of the animals killed as well as the barks of trees and large leaves were used as clothes. In the caves and rock shelters they spent their leisure time in painting and carving on the surface of caves. Paintings show animal groups, men and women dancing, hunting and food gathering and other aspects of life.

• Early Stone Age tools - A pebble tool used as a chopper, hand-axe, cleaver etc.

• Middle Stone Age tools - Borer, arrow-head, scraper etc.

• Late Stone Age tools- point, crescent blade, scraper etc.

Flint was used, together with other types of stone, for making tools and weapons. Some of these were found in the riverbed in the foothills of the Himalayas or in certain parts of the Deccan plateau such as the Narmada valley. In some places, such as the Kashmir valley, the bones of animals were also used. Archaeologists called these stone implements ‘artifacts’.

Beginning of Agriculture and Settled Life-The Neolithic Age

About ten thousand years ago, people started learning to produce their own food. It was discovered that by putting seeds in the soil and watering it, plants would grow. This marked the beginning of agriculture. They grew barley, rice, or wheat. They were to be found all over India but more often in river valleys because water was available in plenty and soil was fertile. So it is easier to grow crops.

They now began to domesticate animals like goat, sheep, cattle and pig. Besides dog, the earliest domesticated animals were sheep and goat. Tools were made of stone which were grounded and polished, for example-digging stick, axe, sickle, grinding stone. They learnt the technique of making vessels and jars out of clay and baskets from bamboo and kept the grains in them. In the beginning, clay pots were made by hand. They were then dried in the sun or baked in kilns to make them hard. Later, wheels, like today, were used to make pots. The discovery of the wheel made a significant difference. It was also used to spin cotton and wool and weave cloth. After sometimes it was used in making transport vehicles like bullock carts and chariots.

Use of Copper & Bronze Began-Chalcolithic age

Copper was the first metal to be discovered. Later, copper was mixed with other metals such as tin or even Zinc and lead to make a new metal or alloy, called Bronze. The period when man began to use metal together with very tiny stone implements is called the Copper or Bronze Age (or the Chalcolithic Age). ‘Chalcolithic’ means copper and stone. Copper and Bronze axes and knives have been found at Brahmagiri (near Mysore) and Navda-Toli (on the Narmada). 

Chalcolithic Pottery

When people began to settle down and grow their food, they continued to live as a large group but functioned more through family units than the group. A number of families would constitute a village, so that mutual protection and help was still available. Archaeologists have found many remains of these villages and from these ‘sites’ as they are called. The chalcolithic potter sometimes decorated his pots with beautiful designs. The women who made pottery did not use the potter’s wheel. Only the men used this. They were fond of ornaments and decoration. The women wore ornaments of shell and bone and carried finely worked combs in their hair. They invented the technique of spinning and weaving cloth from the fluffy substance of the cotton plant. Leisure hours were given to fun and amusement.

Mother Goddess

People were afraid of death and thunder and earth-quakes because they did not know what caused them. Some men gave more thought than others to these questions and suggested answers. There was a sky god who allowed the sun to travel across the sky each day. The earth was like a mother feeding her own children with crops and plants. If the sun was to rise each morning and the earth to bear crops, then the sky-god and the earth-goddess must be worshiped with sacrifices and hymns. Small clay images were also made of the earth-goddess in the form of a mother, and these were widely worshiped. So some of the men became ‘magic men’, who claimed they could control the weather and cure illness and prevent the people from being harmed. Later, there arose a group of priests who performed the sacrifices and sang the hymns on behalf of the whole community.

Death was a journey into another world from which no one ever returned. So the dead were buried in graves or when a child died, it was placed in a large pot or urn which was buried. The grave was sometimes lined with large slabs of stone. Objects like pots, beads, tools etc. were placed along with the body. It was believed that the dead person might need them. There was still one thing which they lacked and which prevented them from advancing more quickly. They did not know how to write. The knowledge of writing was to come at a later stage, when cities came into existence.

The emergence of city life

City Life

Over the years some of the smaller villages grew into large ones. New needs arose and new occupations were started due to increase in number of people. People in these large villages were prosperous because they were now producing more food than they required for their needs, so they could exchange this surplus foods for other things such as cloth, pottery or ornaments. Now it was no longer necessary for every family to work in the fields and produce its own food. Those who were weavers, potters or carpenters exchanged the articles which they produced for food grown by other families. Gradually as trade increased, the craftsmen began to live together and such villages grew into towns.

Living in towns is generally taken as the start and sign of civilization because it is that stage of the development of human culture when people look more than just the satisfaction of material needs. Exchange encourages the development of technology. A more efficient control over nature and resources gave people greater leisure to think and to improve the quality of their life. Invention of writing at this time was a great step forward. It meant that knowledge could be passed from generation to generation and this knowledge would be available to a large number of people. The spread of the use of writing was often accompanied by the growth of towns since traders needed to keep accounts and records.

The growth of towns also led to a greater degree of economic differences among various groups. There was a need for more detailed laws to govern the communities. There was now occasion for some people to speculate about the Universe and the human condition. This also led to diverse religious beliefs.

The Study of Indian History

Construction of History

(History invokes notions of human agency, change, the role of material circumstances in human affairs and the putative meaning of historical events)

One must astonish that how historians studied our long past? How they constructed the entire Indian history into several periods? How they are able to know the social, political, economical and cultural aspect of people who live in distant past? I must say, this question is best answered on the basis of a careful reading of some good historians. One thing can be observed from the readings of good historians that they all dealt with some basic questions. For example:

• What happened? 
• What was it like? 
• What were some of the circumstances and happenings that took place during this period in the past?
• Why did this event occur? 
• What were the conditions and forces that brought it about?
• How did this outcome come to pass? 
• What were the processes through which the outcome occurred?

These are some of the questions historians keep in their mind to arrive at a conclusion. In short, historians conceptualize, describe, contextualize, explain, and interpret events and circumstances of the past. In India, historians generally constructed history of India on the basis of findings of the past. They are also said as the sources of Indian History.

Sources used for construction of History in India

Manuscripts

Manuscripts - Manuscripts refers to ancient books, written by hand either on dried palm leaves or the thick bark of the birch tree, or on paper. They are written in classical languages (Sanskrit, Tamil, Pali, Prakrit, Arabic and others), for example Vedas, Brahmanas, Upanishads, Smritis, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Tripitakas and Sangam literature.

Archaeological Excavations

Archaeology - It is the study of the remains of past. Wherever human beings lived historians find belongings like pottery, jewelry, toys and other things like houses and tools used by them. In course of time, these got buried under debris. They have to be dog out carefully. Then they are studied. Buildings, monuments, temples, houses, etc. also gives important information about the life of those people.

Ancient Coins

Inscriptions and Coins - Writing which is engraved either on a stone surface or on a metal or brick is called an inscription, for example the inscriptions of king Asoka throws light on his administration, war, and various measures taken for public welfare.

An Inscription

History construction encompasses all periods from the various earliest signs of human activity to the very recent past i.e. from cave dwellings to Nuclear Reactors. Obviously the techniques used to study these periods different from one another. Early human activities lack written records, so the descriptions tend to depend entirely on archaeological findings and interpretation. Later, written records i.e. Manuscripts can be used along with archaeological recording. In more recent periods very details of accounts sometimes survive, with inscriptions, coins and portraits to show how history were put together and histories can be compiled from those who worked on them.

Evolution of Indian History

The clues provided by archaeology have enabled historians to discover how men and women lived in India many thousand years ago. Historians described this type of life as primitive, because the people largely depend upon nature for their livelihood. Their food was not cooked and their clothes were not sewn, and they had no houses. Since they did not cultivate crops and vegetables and lived off what they found on plants and trees, and hunted animals instead of tame them, they are called ‘food-gatherers’.

Slowly, as they learnt more and more about the plants and animals which surrounded them, and as they improved their tools and methods of making things, they began to lead an easier life. Finally, they found ways of growing plants and taming animals. This is the stage at which man is described as a ‘food-producer’. It took almost 300,000 years to change from food gathering to food-producing. Soon these people were managing their lives so well that they were not only dwelling in well-constructed huts but had leisure hours to think and record their thoughts and to improve their ways of living.

Contact between human habitations is often made because of the need to exchange items produced in different areas. Such exchanges sometimes develop into trade, and lines of communication into trade routes. Traders go from one place to another and there is therefore an intermixing of people. The earliest form of exchange and movement of people was that of pastorals and herdsmen who took their animals to different pastures, had relations with settled agriculturists and also carried with them a few items of exchange. Where such exchange was successful, there, gradually, full time traders took over the job of exchange and then commerce developed. Pastoralism, agriculture and trade, therefore, are important human activities and play a major role in the evolution of history.

People who move or migrate carry their language with them. This is then mixed with the language of those settled in the area to which a group has moved. Out of the mixture of languages, a new language may emerge. Areas that have a lot of contact with other people tend to change fast. But there are other areas which remain cut off or isolated and in such areas there is less change. In some parts of India there are such areas which have not undergone much change. These are frequently inhabited by what we have come to call ‘tribal people’. There cultures are very important to the understanding of Indian culture. They represent the way of life which was common to India at the time when Indian culture first began.

Deccan and South India (300-700 A.D.)

Peninsular India

(Kingdoms arose after the sangam age in the Deccan and far south has been important in the history of India for their cultural contributions)

After the decline of Satavahanas, many kingdoms emerged in the Deccan. Vakatakas in the peninsular India, were one of them. They were a local power that ruled over northern Maharashtra and Vidarbha. Their history can be reconstructed on the basis of a large number of land grant charters issued to the brahmanas. One of the famous king Rudrasena II of the royal Vakataka family was married to Prabhavatigupta, the daughter of Chandragupta II of the imperial Gupta family. The Vakatakas had tried to build a strong state but it did not last. But the Vakataka kingdom is culturally important because it became a channel to spread brahamanical culture to south India. They were followed by the Chalukya dynasty. 

The Chalukyas

Deccan & South in 500 A.D.

The Chalukyas played an eminent role in the history of Deccan and south India for about 200 years from the beginning of sixth century A.D. But they became a sovereign power in 540 A.D. and established their capital at Vatapi (modern badami) in Karnataka. The kingdom became prominent during the reign of Pulakesin II i.e. from AD 610 to A.D. 642. He consolidated his authority in Maharashtra and conquered large parts of Deccan. He defeated Harshavardhana in AD 630 and acquired the title of dakshinapatheshvara. It is mentioned in Hieun-Tsang’s account that the Chinese pilgrim also paid tribute to the powers and virtues of Pulakeshin-II. But the Pallavas were becoming powerful in south India at the same time as the Chalukyas in the Deccan. Pulakeshin II fought a battle against the Pallava king Mahendravarman and defeated him. But some years later the Pallava king Narasimhavarman attacked Pulakeshin II and captured his capital city. This was a big defeat for the Chalukyas. However, he himself was defeated and killed by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman in AD 642. It marked the beginning of a long drawn political struggle between the Pallavas and Chalukyas that continued with ups and down for more than a hundred years. Rashtrakutas to the north of Chalukya empire also had been a threat for chalukyas. The Rashtrakutas were ruling a small kingdom in the north-western Deccan. They began their career by being subordinate to the Chalukyas and did not become really strong until the 753 A.D. when they attacked and subdued the Chalukya king. In about AD 757, the Rashtrakutas, overthrew them. 

Virupaksha Temple

Culturally, Chalukya period is important for the growth of art and architecture in Deccan. Pulakeshin II sent an embassy to the Persian king, Khusrao II. A hundred years later, when the Zorostrians left Iran, they came and settled in the towns along the west coast of the Deccan and were later called Parsis i.e. Persians. Zoroastrianism was the religion preached by Zoroaster in Iran some time before 600 B.C. the sacred book of the Zoroastrians is the Zend-Avesta. It was the dominant religion in Iran until the coming of Islam. 

Art & Architecture

A pillared Hall at Badami

The southern style of architecture came to be known as Dravida. The chalukya kings built many temples at Aihole, Badami, and Pattadakal. Pattadakal has as many as ten temples built in seventh and eighth centuries. The most famous temples are the Papanatha and Virupaksha temples adorned with sculptures, which represent scenes from the Ramayana. Chalukyas also built cave temples at Badami. A painting in an Ajanta cave shows Pulakeshin-II receiving the ambassador of Iran. Much of the sculpture found at Ellora was due to the patronage of the Chalukya and Rashtrakuta kings.

Temple at Aihole

The earliest rock cut temples were excavated in western Deccan in the early years of the Christian era. The first monument of this period is the Chaitya at Karle. The second phase of rock architecture started with the growing popularity of image worship in Mahayana Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism. The cave temples of Ajanta, Elephanta, Ellora, the mandapas, the rathas of Mahabalipuram and the Kailasa temple at Ellora were some of the great achievements of this period. There are 27 caves in Ajanta. They contain the finest paintings of the ancient times in India. Some of the caves contain extraordinary beautiful images of the Buddha, scenes from his life and from the Jataka stories. At Ellora there are about 35 caves with fine sculptures. The greatest work here, the Kailasa temple is a contribution of the Rashtrakutas. 

The Pallavas

The Pallavas, in far south, probably began as officers of the Satavahana kings. When the Satavahana kingdom declined, the Pallavas made themselves into local rulers and slowly spread their control southwards from the region of Kanchipuram. Kanchi under them became an important temple town and a center of trade and commerce. They rose to power during the reign of Mahendravarman (AD 600–630) and Narasimhavarman I (AD 630–668). Throughout their reign they were in constant conflict with Chalukyas of Vatapi in the north and the Tamil kingdoms of Cholas and Pandyas in the south. They had to fight many wars against the Pandyas and the Chalukyas, both of whom tried to stop the Pallavas from becoming powerful. Pallavas conquered the land to the south of Kanchipuram, Tanjore and the Paddukottai region, because this land was fertile. So Pallavas established their authority over parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Their capital remained at Kanchi.

Rock Cut Temple at Trichy

Mahendravarman the most famous pallava king was a great warrior, dramatist, musician, and a poet. He was a Jaina to begin with, but was later converted to Shaivism by Appar, one of the Tamil saints. His son Narasimhavarman built cave temples at Trichy and Paddukotai. However he is best known for the rathas of Mamallapuram. Culturally their reign is important for the growth of Tamil bhakti literature and the Dravidian style of art and architecture in south India. It was under them that Mahabalipuram, south of Chennai, emerged as an important centre of temple architecture. Their rule in south India was replaced by the imperial Cholas.

Art and Architecture

Ratha Temple

The Pallava rulers constructed stone temples in 7th and 8th centuries to house the images of Siva and Vishnu. The most famous are the seven rathas or temples each made out of a solid, piece of stone constructed by king Narasimhavarman at Mahabalipuram, 65 km from Chennai. These rathas are named after the Pandavas. The Ratha is a shrine carved out of a single rock and it looks like a structural temple. The Pallavas also built many structural temples. One of the most important among them is the Kailashnath temple, built of stone blocks, at Kanchipuram in the 8th century.

Kailasanatha Temple

The mandapas at mahabalipuram are excavated halls with finely carved pillars and panels. The splendid panel called the descent of Ganga in Mahabalipuram is a unique rock cut sculpture. The shore temple at Mahabalipuram is located at sea shore and hence it has been called. The twin towers of this temple set in a picturesque background make it an enchanting sight on a moonlight. Though Kanchipuram was the capital of the Pallavas, numerous temples were built there. Two of them stand out prominently. The Kailasanatha temple with its vimana and the numerous panels depicting Shiva as Nataraja and the Vaikunthanatha temple is noted for its vimana and the series of panels depicting the history of the Pallava dynasty. The image was placed in a room at one end of the temple and on the roof of this room there was built a tall tower. In later centuries these towers became taller and taller.

Social Life in the Deccan and South

Social Gatherings

People would gather and discuss matters concerning the welfare of the villages, at these temples. Children were imparted education by the teachers in the schools attached to temples. During festivals, discourses, fairs and cultural programmes were held in the temple courtyard. Everyone was not allowed into the temple. Some lower castes and untouchables had their own separate temples. The temple was also very rich and owned lands which yielded revenue. From the wealth it collected it could finance trade as well. In addition to the priests the temple had to have a managing committee to look after its worldly interests.

Religious Life in the Deccan and South

Trivikrama: A Hindu God

The worship of Vishnu and Siva became popular in south India by saints. They believed that religion consisted of personal devotion or bhakti to god. The saints travelled from place to place singing hymns in praise of either Vishnu or Shiva. The Alvars were the devotees of Vishnu and the Nayannars were the devotees of Shiva. From time to time they would recite their hymns. These hymns were composed in Tamil, the language of the common people. Now the Vedic religious texts were understand by only the priests or who were educated. One of the most famous of the Alvar saints was a woman called Andal. The Vaisnava devotional songs are later arranged in a text called Nalayira Prabandham while those of the Saivites are preserved in the text known as Devarama.

Hieun-Tsang had visited the city of Kanchipuram and stayed there, for sometimes. Kanchipuram was a centre of Tamil and Sanskrit studies. Dandin wrote in Sanskrit, since they were writing for the court circles and the upper castes.

Inference from the Blogger

In some respects, the last phase of the ancient period of Indian history (starts in early 4th century A.D. and ends in about 8th century A.D.) was also a period of reversals, which witnessed a gradual decline of towns and trade, of strong centralized state, and the beginning of the system of land grants. These developments, according to some historians/scholars mark the beginning of feudalism in India.

In religion this is a period of decline of Buddhism and the rise of Brahmanical religion or Hinduism as we know it today. Idol worship became popular and building of temples on a large scale started. Art inspired by Buddhism also continued, particularly in sculpture and painting.

Tantrism added to Hinduism

One new thing also happened in this period i.e. the spread of Tantrism in India. From the 5th century the brahmanas had started receiving land in the tribal areas of Nepal, Assam, Bengal, Odisha, central India and Deccan. As a consequence, the tribal elements came to be assimilated in the brahmanical society. The brahmanas adopted their rituals, gods and goddesses. It is this assimilation of brahmanical religion and tribal practices which resulted in the development of Tantrism. It did not believe in any caste or gender bias and admitted both women and shudras in its ranks. It put emphasis on ‘female’ as a source of power and energy. The Tantrik concepts affected, Shaivism and Vaishnavism as well as Buddhism and Jainism which resulted in the introduction of the worship of female deities in these religions.

Great progress was made in literature, both religious and secular in Sanskrit which also became the language of the courts in most parts of the country. Tamil literature also made great progress and the Nayanars and Alvars made lasting contributions to it. In spite of the dominant position of Sanskrit in most parts of the country, this period marks the beginning of many modern Indian languages as well as distinct scripts in different parts of the country.

By the time the ancient period of Indian history came to a close, India had developed a culture which was marked by features that have characterized it ever since.